ETHICS – Foundation of Moral Valuation c.

Axiology refers broadly to the study of value and is often divided into
aesthetics, which concerns itself with the value of beauty, and ethics, which
Chapter 1: The Ethical Dimension of Human Existence. concerns itself with the value of human actions.

INTRODUCTION DESCRIPTIVE AND NORMATIVE

In August 2007, Cris Anthony Mendez, a 20-year-old student at the University Descriptive Study of Ethics - reports how people, particularly groups, make
of the Philippines, died as a result of suspected fraternity hazing (the term their moral valuations without making any judgment either for or against these
colloquially used to refer to initiation rites in which neophytes may be valuations. This often work of the social scientist like historian (studying
subjected to various forms of physical abuse). Autopsy report pointed to different moral standards over time) or sociologist or anthropologist (studying
physical injuries as the cause of death. Even the lewder of Sigma Rho different moral standards across cultures.)
fraternity public denounced the death of Cris. Fraternity leaders, those present
during the incident did not cooperate with authorities. UP Chancellor called Normative Study of Ethics - is often done in philosophy or moral theology,
for fraternities to defend their existence. Case of Cris Anthony Mendez engages the question like "What could or should be considered as the right
remains unsolved. way of acting?". What we ought to maintain as our standards or basis for
moral valuation.
VALUE
Ethics generally speaking, is about matters such as the good things that we A philosophical discussion of ethics engages in a critical consideration of the
should pursue and bad things that we should avoid; the right ways in which strengths and weaknesses of these theories.
we could or should act and the wrong ways of acting. Acceptable and
unacceptable in human actions. ISSUE, DECISION, JUDGEMENT, AND DILEMMA
Moral Issue - a situation that calls for moral valuation. Imagine a situation
CLARIFICATIONS AND TERMINOLOGIES wherein a person cannot afford a certain item, but then the possibility presents
Recognition the notion of good and bad, and right and wrong, are the primary itself for her to steal it.
concern of ethics. Issue is also often used to refer to those situations that often are source of
considerable and inclusive debate. Thus, we usually hear capital punishment
KINDS OF VALUATION and euthanasia as moral issues.
a. Aesthetic - derived from the Greek word aisthesis ("sense" or "feeling") -
this refers to the judgments of personal approval or disapproval that we make Moral Decision - when one is placed in a situation and confronted by the
about what we see, hear, smell, or taste. choice of what act to perform.
Example: I choose not to take something I did not pay for.
b. Etiquette - is concerned with right and wrong actions, but those which
might be considered not quite grave enough to belong to a discussion on Moral Judgment - when a person is an observer who makes an assessment on
ethics. - we have a sense of approval or disapproval concerning certain actions the actions or behavior of someone.
which can be considered relatively more trivial in nature. Example: A friend of mine chooses to steal from a store, and I make an
assessment that it is wrong.
c. Technique/Technical - derived from the Greek word "techne" means
technique or technical - often used to refer to a proper way (or right way) of Moral Dilemma - choosing right over wrong, or good over bad, and
doing things, but a technical valuation (or right and wrong technique of doing considering instead the more complicated situation wherein one is torn
things) may not necessarily be an ethical one as these examples show. between choosing one of two goods or choosing between the lesser of two
evils. When an individual can choose only one from a number of possible
Recognizing the characteristics of aesthetic and technical valuation allows us actions.
to have a rough guide as to what belongs to a discussion of ethics. One Example: A mother may be conflicted between wanting to feed her hungry
complication that can be noted is that the distinction between what belongs to child, but then recognizing that it would be wrong for her to steal.
ethics and what does not is not always so clearly defined.
REASONING
ETHICS AND MORALS A person's fear of punishment or desire for reward can provide him a reason
"MORALS" - may be used to refer to specific beliefs or attitudes that people for acting in a certain way.
have or to describe acts that people perform. We also have terms such as The promise of rewards and the fear of punishments can certainly motivate us
"moral judgment or "moral reasoning, " which suggest a more rational aspect. to act, but they are not determinative of the rightness or wrongness of a
An individual’s personal conduct is referred to as his morals, and if he falls particular way of acting, or of the good or bad in a specific pursuit. Asking the
short on behaving properly, then he can be described as immoral. question “why” might bring us to no more than a superficial discussion of
rewards and punishments, but it could also bring us to another level of
"ETHICS” - can be spoken of as the discipline of studying and understanding thinking.
ideal human behavior and ideal ways of thinking. Thus, ethics is
acknowledged as an intellectual discipline belonging to "philosophy". Moral Theory – is a systematic attempt to establish the validity of maintaining
Acceptable and unacceptable behaviors are also generally described as ethical certain principles.
and unethical respectively. Theory – is a system of thought or ideas and can also be referred to as
Example: Professional Ethics like legal ethics, medical ethics, media ethics. frameworks.
"PHILOSOPHY" - is rooted in the Greek words that translate to "love of We can use this term framework as a theory of interconnected ideas, and at the
wisdom" (philia is the noun often translated into English as some form of same time, a structure to which we can evaluate our reasons for valuing a
"friendship" or "love, " while sophia is the noun often translated into English certain decision or judgement.
as "wisdom").
- first used by thinkers to refer to their striving to better understand the reality Plato (427-347 BCE), "The Greek Thinker"
in a maintained and systematic manner. - was credited as one of the pioneers of philosophy. He started a school in
Athens, known as the Academy and is believed to be the first institution of
The different branches or areas of philosophy correspond to some of these higher learning in the Western world. Known for his writings such as “Can
questions, generally stated as follows: Virtue be Taught?”, “What is Beauty”, and “What is Love?”
- "The Apology of Socrates" was written by Plato where Socrates makes the
a. Metaphysics wonders as to what constitutes the whole of reality. claim that it is the greatest good for a person to spend time thinking about and
b. Epistemology asks what our basis for determining what we know. discussing with others these questions on goodness and virtue.
SOURCES OF AUTHORITY toward satisfying these interests. Ones’s actions are ultimately always
- the idea that standards of valuation are imposed by a higher authority that motivated by self-serving desires.
commands our obedience.
This theory has a couple of strong points:
Law - is supposed as one's guide to ethical behavior. This cannot tell us what 1. Simplicity: idea marked by simplicity; it has a unique appeal to it; a theory
to pursue, only what to avoid. Example: In the Philippines, Filipinos are that conveniently identifies a single basis that will somehow account for all
constrained to obey the laws of the land as stated in the country's criminal and actions is a good example of this.
civil codes. 2. Plausibility: It is plausible that self-interest is behind a person's actions. It is
The term "positive law" refers to the different rules and regulations that are clearly the motivation behind many of the actions one performs which are
posited or put forward by an authority figure that require compliance. - Taking obviously self-serving; it could very well also be the motivation behind an
the law to be the basis of ethics has the benefit of providing us with an individual’s seemingly other-directed actions. It is not only plausible, but also
objective standard that is obligatory applicable to all. irrefutable.
One point to be raised is the prohibitive nature of law. The law does does not Psychological egoism is an irrefutable theory because there is no way to try to
tell us what we should do; but it constrains us from performing acts that we answer it without being confronted by the challenge that, whatever one might
should not do. It only tells us what to avoid and not what to pursue. say, there is the self-serving motive at the root of everything. The
Later, we shall see how the concept of law is creatively utilized in the psychological egoist can and will insist on his stand no matter how one might
DEONTOLOGY of IMMANUEL KANT in amore ethically significant way. try to object. This opens two questions: first, "Because we cannot refute it,
shall we accept it as true?" and "Do we accept the consequences of this
Religion - the divinity called God, Allah, or Supreme Being commands and theory?"
one is obliged to obey his/her Creator (Divine Command Theory). When we look at its consequences, leads us to a cynical view of humanity, to
There is a strong inclination in us to refer to our religious background to back- a gloomy description of human nature, and finally to useless theory for
up our moral valuations. someone who is concerned with asking herself what the right thing is to do.
We are presented with a clear code of prohibitions and many of these
prohibitions given by religion. Ethical Egoism - differs from psychological egoism in that it does not suppose
Taking religion as a basis of ethics has the advantage of providing us with not all our actions are already inevitably self-serving. Instead, it prescribes that we
only a set of commands but also a supreme authority that can inspire and should make our own ends, our own interests, as the single overriding
compel our obedience in a way that nothing else can. concern. We may act in a way that is beneficial to others, but we should do
However, there are problem with this, (1) each faith demand from each that only if it ultimately benefits us. This theory acknowledges that one should
followers causing conflict in ethical standards. (2) one requires the believer to consider herself as the priority and not allow any other concern, such as the
clarify her understanding of the connection between ethics and the Divine. welfare of other people, to detract from this pursuit. - Also, one can take on
This problem was first elucidated in the history of thought by Plato in his this view, if one wishes, but it is also possible to wonder whether there way of
dialogue titled Euthyphro. recognizing our being in the world with other, of thinking of our own well-
Later, we shall se one way that we can have a more subtle and yet powerful being concomitantly with the well-being of others. Perhaps this is what the
presentation of how one’s faith contribute to ethical thought when we look at study of ethics is all about.
the Natural Law Theory of Thomas Aquinas. To examine this, we will look into Plato’s Republic (The Myths of Gyges).
Ethical Egoism translates into – not just some peasant pursuit of one’s own
Culture - our exposure to different societies and their cultures makes us aware desire, but an imposition of a will to power that is potentially destructive both
that there are ways of thinking and valuing that are different from our own, the self and of the others.
that there is in fact a wide diversity in how different people believe it is proper
to act. Therefore, what is ethically acceptable or unacceptable is relative to, or
that is to say, dependent on one's culture. This position is referred to as Chapter 2: Utilitarianism
"cultural relativism". Taking cultural relativism as basis of ethical standards
teaches us to be tolerant of others from different cultures, as we realize that we INTRODUCTION
are in no position to judge whether the ethical thought or practice of another On January 25, 2015, the 84th Special Action Force (SAF) conducted an
culture is acceptable or unacceptable. operation at Tukanalipao, Mamasapamo Maguindanao. AKA, Oplan Exodus,
Problems in Cultural Relativism by James Rachels: that will serve an arrest warrant for Zulkifli bin Hir or Marwan, a Malaysian
(1) Because different cultures have different moral codes, we cannot say that terrorist and bomb maker with 5 M USD on his head. This led to the clash
any one moral code is the right one. (2) We realize that we are in no position between PNP SAF, BIFF (Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters) and MILF
to render any kind of judgement on the practices of another culture. (3) We (Moro Islamic Liberation Front) that leads to successful death of Marwan. But
realize that we are in no position to render judgement on the practices of even also, the death of 44 SAF, 18 MILF, and 5 civilians. In a public hearing,
our own culture. (4) We can maintain it only by following presumption of Seante Pres. Frankline Drilon and Sen. Francis Escudero debate on a voice
culture as a single, defined substance or as something fixed and already recording trying to cover the incident. (Issue of Anti-wiretapping Law).
determined.
“The greatest good for the greatest number.” _ UTILITARIANISM
SENSES OF THE SELF
Subjectivism – recognition that the individual thinking person (the subject) is Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that argues the goodness of pleasure and the
at the heart of all moral valuations. Confronted by situations and is burdened determination of right behavior based on the usefulness of the action’s
with the need to make a decision or judgment. It leaps to the more radical consequences. Its root word is “utility”, means usefulness of the consequences
claim that the individual is the sole determinant of what is morally good or of one’s action and behavior. Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill are 2
bad. Personal independence. There is no such thing as "objective" right or foremost utilitarian thinkers.
wrong.
Jeremy Bentham born on February15, 1748 in London, England. He’s the
A number of clichés familiar to us would echo this idea: "No one can tell me teacher of James Mill, father of John Stuart Mill. He first wrote about the
what is right or wrong." greatest happiness principle of ethics and was known for system of penal
"No one knows my situation better than myself." management called Panopticon. H is and advocate for women’s rights,
"I am entitled to my own opinion." freedom, separation of church from states, animal rights, abolition of slavery
"It is good if I say that it is good.” and death penalty. He denied nor agreed with natural law. He died on June 6,
1832, he donated his corpse to the University of College London, where his
Psychological Egoism – it describes the underlying dynamic behind all human auto-icon is in public display up to this day to serve as his memorial.
actions. As a descriptive theory, it does not direct one to act in a particular Based the usefulness of the consequences of actions. For Bentham and Mill,
way, it points out that there is already an underlying basis for how one acts. utility refers to a way of understanding the result of people’s actions. The
The ego or the self has its desires and interests, and all our actions are geared utilitarian value pleasure and happiness; this means that the usefulness of
actions is based on its promotion of happiness. Bentham and Mill understood JUSTICE AD MORAL RIGHTS
happiness as the experience of pleasure for the greatest number of persons,
even at the expense of some individual’s rights. Mill understands justice as a respect for rights directed towards society’s
pursuit of the greatest happiness of the greatest number. For him, rights are a
John Stuart Mill was born on May 20, 1806, in Pentonville. UK. Son of James valid claim on society and are justified by utility. Rights referred are related to
Mill, a friend and disciple of Bentham. He was home-schooled. Studied Greek the interests that serve general happiness. A right is justifiable on utilitarian
at 3 and Latin at 5. Wrote a history of human law at 11, suffered nervoue principles in as much as they produce an overall happiness that is greater than
breakdown at 20. Married to Harriet Taylor after 21 years of friendship. His the unhappiness resulting from their implementation.
utilitarianism and ethical theory defense can be seen on his writing entitled Utilitarians argue that issues of justice carry a very strong emotional import
“Utilitarianism” (1861). Mill died on May 8, 1873 in Avignon, France from because the category of rights is directly associated with the individual’s most
Erysipelas. vital interest. Utilitarianism associated with the possession of legal and moral
rights.
THE PRINCIPLES OF UTILITY
In the book, “An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation We are treated justly when our legal and moral rights are respected. Legal
(1789)”, Jeremy Bentham argues that actions are governed by 2 sovereign rights are neither inviolable nor natural, but rights are subject to some
masters–pleasure and pain. These masters are given to us by nature to help us exceptions.
determine what is good or bad and what ought to be done and not; they fasten
our choices to their throne. Mill crates a distinction between legal rights and their justification. When
Principles of utility is about our subjection to these sovereign masters. OTOH, legal rights are not morally justified in accordance with the greatest happiness
principles refer to the motivation of our actions as guided by our avoidance of principle, then these rights need neither be observed, no be respected. Moral
pain and for our desire for pleasure. We do what is pleasurable and avoid rights take precedence over legal rights. For Mill’s justice can b interpreted in
painful. Bentham equates happiness with pleasure. Mill supports Bentham’s term of moral rights because justice promotes the greater social good.
principle of utility. The things that produce happiness and pleasure are good,
whereas those that produce unhappiness and pain are bad. Going back to the wiretapping issue, it must be considered that one’s rights
need to be at stake for the greatest number people.
Bentham and Mill characterized moral value as utility and understood it as
whatever produces happiness or pleasure and avoidance of pain. There is a
criterion for distinguishing pleasures and to calculate the resultant pleasure or Chapter 3: Natural Law
pain; in this it occurs the distinction between Bentham and Mill.
INTRODUCTION
Bentham refer as the Natural Moral Preferability of Pleasure is what Mill refer October 2016, it was reported that Pantaleon Alvarez, speaker of the House of
as Theory of Life. For these 2 men, pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain Representatives, was intending to file bill which would amend the country’s
is the only principle in assessing an action’s morality. Family Code, to allow Same-sex Marriage. But this bll was criticized by many
because of it is unsightly to see 2 same sex man kissing. Or in other word, it is
Bentham provide a framework determining the moral preferability of actions very unnatural.
for evaluating pleasure and pain called Felicific Calculus. It is a common
currency framework that calculated the pleasure that some actions can People justify to done something by making the appeal that what they
produce. It can be evaluated through intensity or strength, duration and length, maintain is what “natural”, and therefore acceptable. OTOH, unacceptable if it
certainty or uncertainty or likelihood of pleasure. It allows us to measure is unnatural.
pleasure and pain for actions. Natural seems to b used to refer to some kind of intuition that a person has, on
which is apparently true to him which is unquestioned. The word is used to try
Extent – another dimension considering the number of persons who were to justify a certain way of behaving by seeing its likeness somewhere in the
affected by pleasure or pain. natural world. The word “natural” is used as an appeal to something
instinctual without it being directed by reason. Also, this refers to what seems
The actions are evaluated on this single scale regardless of preferences and common to them given their particular environment.
values. In this sense, pleasure and pain can only quantitatively differ but not
qualitatively differ from other experiences of pleasure and pain accordingly. THOMAS AQUINAS
Mill dissents from Bentham’s single scale of pleasure. He thinks that principle Hailed a doctor of Roman Catholic Church, a Dominican friar who is known
of utility must distinguish pleasures qualitatively and not merely quantitively. in the Middle Ages, his Summa Theologiae, Aquinas’s Magnum Opus, is a
We as moral agents, can search and desiring higher intellectual and lower base voluminous work that comprehensively discusses any significant points in
pleasure. According to Mill, human’s pleasure is qualitatively differed from Christian Theology. He was canonized in 1323.
animals. He argues that quality is more preferable to quantity. What Mill Medieval thinker proposes the Natural Law Theory. This moral theory, in turn,
discovers anthropologically is that actual choices of knowledgeable persons is part of a larger project, which is Aquinas’s vison of the Christian faith.
point that higher intellectual pleasures are preferable than purely sensual
appetites. Mill offers an imaginative thought experience. Famous quote in THE CONTEST OF THE CHRISTIAN THEORY
Mill’s Utilitarianism “It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig Promise right at the center of the Christian faith; that we are created by God in
satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.” order to ultimately return to him. The structure of his Magnum Opus “Summa
Theologiae” follows the trajectory of this story.
PRINCIPLES OF THE GREATES NUMBER
It is the pleasure of the greatest number affected by the consequences of our There are 3 parts of the voluminous work. (1) Aquinas speaks of God, and
action. although we acknowledge that our limited human intellect cannot fully grasp
Utilitarianism cannot lead to selfish acts. It is not about our happiness alone; it him, we, nevertheless are able to say something concerning His goodness, His
cannot be all about us if it is only us who got satisfied by our actions, then it is might, and His creative power. Recognizing that we are created by God. (2)
not morally good. Utilitarianism is not dismissive of sacrifices that procure Deals with man or the dynamic of human life. Characterized by our pursuit of
more happiness for others. Therefore, it is necessary for us to consider happiness, which we should realize rests ultimately no on any particular good
everyone’s happiness, including our own, as the standard by which to evaluate thing that is created by God, but in the highest good which is God Himself. (3)
what is moral. It is interested with the best consequences for the highest focuses on Jesus as our Savior.
number of persons. Not interested with the intention of the agent.
Second part or section of this story that centers on human life and its striving
towards God. Obey certain rules of doctrines that were on the Scared
Scriptures.
THE CONTEXT OF AQUINAS’S ETHICS It is good for us not to simply be free to act in whatever way we like. We
should recognize the proper measure or the limits in our actions that would
Explore how emotions – the passions – are involved in this process, and allow us to direct our acts in such a way that we can pursue ends, both our
therefor require a proper order if they are to properly contribute to a good life. own and also that of others, together.
We might explore how our actions are related to certain dispositions often The determination of the proper way measure of our acts can be referred to as
referred as habits in a dynamic way since our actions both arise from our law.
habits at the same time reinforce them. Example: Traffic rules – a motorist cannot just drive in any ways he likes, but
The Christian life, therefore, is about developing the capacities given to us by must respect traffic rules. These rules seems to measure or set limit on his
God into a disposition of virtue inclined towards the good. driving, for example by placing a maximum speed he can travel on a
Aquinas also puts our conscience that directs our moral thinking. There is a particular road. Such a limit or such a rule is something good, for both him
sense of right and wrong in us that we obliged to obey, not just intuition or gut and for others as it helps prevent motor accidents.
feeling; it must have basis of morality.
How moral theory of Aquinas requires the judicious use of reason. In doing As Aquinas puts it, the law must regard properly the relationship to universal
so, one’s sense of right and wrong would be grounded on something stable: happiness.
human nature itself. A law therefore, is concerned with the common good. In a way, making of a
law belongs either to the whole people or to a public person who has care for
THE GREEK HERITAGE the common good or is tasked with the concern for the good of the common
community or of the whole people.
Neoplatonic Good – God crates. He cares for us, thus governs the activity of It is also necessary for rules or laws to be communicated to the people
the universe and of every creature. Central belief of the Christian faith, involved in order to enforce them and to better ensure compliance. This is
inspired by the Divine Revelation. This has been shaped by an idea of Plato, referred to as promulgation.
“the notion of a supreme and absolutely transcendent good.” In his work The Without considering the fact that sometimes rules are not properly thought out
Republic, he’s trying to envision the ideal society. The Idea of Good-a good or seem to favor selected people or groups rather than the common good we
which is prior to all being and is even the cause of all being will become a can speak of law as a form of restriction and direction of human actions in
source of fascination and inspiration to later thinkers even to this day. such a way that the common good is promoted.
Neoplatonist – scholars who’s their task was to clarify and elaborate the great Aquinas own summary of this point is worth citing: “the definition of law may
thinker had already written. be gathered; and it is nothing else than an ordinance of reason for the common
In the hands of the NEOPLATONIST, Plato’s idea of good, which is the good, made by him who has care of the community, and promulgated.”
sources of all beings, becomes identified with the One and the Beautiful.
Through Neoplatonist like Plotinus, the Platonic idea of good would continue VARIETIES OF LAW
well into the Christian Middle Ages.
1. Eternal Law - This refers to what God wills for creation, how each
Aristotelian Being and Becoming participants in it is intended to return to Him. Given our limitations, we cannot
Four concepts which provide way of understanding any particular being under grasp the fullness of the eternal law.
consideration. According to Aristotle, any being has 4 causes. All things partake in the ternal law, meaning all beings are already created by
1. Material Cause – any being is corporeal, possessed of a certain materiality God in a certain way intended to return to Him.
or physical stuff. A being is individuated – it becomes the unique. Based on divine revelation. Like what is handed down to us in the sacred
2. Formal Cause – this material takes a particular shape. The shape that makes Scripture (e.g., the Ten Commandments in the book Exodus in the Old
a being particular kind can be called its form. Testament or Jesus’s Injunction to love one’s neighbor in the Gospel.)
3. Efficient Cause – we do not simply pop up from nothing but comes from Irrational creatures are participating in the eternal law, although we can say
another being which is prior to it. Thus, there is something which brings about that they are any way conscious of this law.
the presence of another being. Aquinas notes that we cannot speak of them as obeying the law, except by the
4. Final Cause – being has an apparent end or goal. way of similitude, which is to say that they do not think of the law or chose to
obey it, but are simply, through the instinctual following of their nature,
The process of becoming or the possibility of change that takes place in a complying with the law that God has for them. These creatures are following
being. The new pair of principle is introduced by him which we refer to as the Divine Providence.
Potency and Act. A being may carry within itself certain potentials, but this However, humans as rational beings, participates more fully and perfectly in
requires being actualized. the law given the capacity for reason. Humans have the capacity to think what
is good and evil, and to choose appropriately.
ESSENCE AND VARIETIES OF LAW So Aquinas writes: “Wherefore it has a share of the Eternal Reason, whereby
it has a natural inclination to its proper act and end: and this participation of
Essence of Law the eternal law in the rational creature is called natural law.”
- As rational beings, we have free will. Though our capacity for reason, we are
able to judge between possibilities and to choose to direct our actions in one 2. Human Law - It refers to all instances wherein human beings construct and
way or the other. Our actions are directed towards attaining ends or goods that enforce laws in their communities.
we desire. Insofar, as a human law goes against what nature inclines us toward, it is not
There are many possible desirable ends or goods, and we act in such ways as properly speaking a law–in the ideal sense of directing us to the common
to pursue them. However, just because we think that a certain end is good and good–but instead is unjust and can be called a matter of violence.
is therefore desirable does not necessarily mean it is indeed good.
It is possible to first suppose that something is good only to realize later that 3. Divine Law - A happiness that surpasses human’s nature, a supernatural
doing so was a mistake. This is why it is important for reason to always be happiness that can be obtained through the power of God alone. To direct us
part of process. Acts are rightly directed towards their ends by reason. But this towards our supernatural end, we had been given further instructions in the
does not simply mean that through reason we can figure out how to pursue form of divine law.
something that we already had thoughtlessly supposed to be good for us; what This is necessarily for Aquinas as he sees our end as the blessed return to God.
is necessary is to think carefully of what really is in fact good for us.
In thinking about what is good for us, it is also quite possible that we end up NATURAL LAW
thinking exclusively for our own good. Aquinas reminds us that this will not Man has natural inclination, and are naturally apprehended by reason as being
do. We cannot simply act in pursuit of our own ends or good without any good, and consequently as object of pursuit, and their contraries as evil, and
regard for other people’s ends or good. objects of avoidance. Man as an inclination to good with the nature he has.
We have to consider what is good for the community as well as our own good. Preserving human life, warding off its obstacles, belong to natural law. He ha
This is called common good. a natural inclination to God, and to live in society.
IN COMMON WITH OTHER BEINGS
We humans are unique and at the same time participating in the community of
the rest of His creation. This is our nature to something that we share in the
nature of the other beings.
Aquinas identified that there is in our nature common with others to preserve
one own’s being. It is according to natural law to preserve human life. It
would be unethical and violation of natural law to take one’s life. Acts that
promote continuation of life is ethical because they are in line with the natural
law.

IN COMMON WITH OTHER ANIMALS

Our human nature common with other animals like sexual intercourse and
care of one’s offspring. In animals, sex has specific time of “heat”, and
humans has natural inclination to engage in sex.
Intrinsic connection between sex ad fecundity gives rise to a number of
nations of what is acceptable and not.
In the ethical issue about abortion. For instance, in natural law, it is
unacceptable. But OTOH, it is also bad to abuse the young child, forced to
labor, or deprived to his basic need caused by the unwanted pregnancy of the
mother.
With regards to moral acts, the moral judgments get more volatile. Rejecting
contraceptive and homosexual act, can be unnatural to humans for it must be
considered deviant.
Thomas writes, “special sins are against nature, thus, unisexual lust is
unnatural crime.”

UNIQUELY HUMAN
It states that we have inclination to good according to the nature of our reason.
It is of interest that this is followed by matters of both an epistemic and a
social concern. Examples are Shun Ignorance, acts of deception and fraud
would also be unacceptable.
Aquinas doesn’t really clearly specify what acts to be considered ethical and
unethical. Instead, he give general guidepost; the epistemic concern, which is
that we know we pursue the truth, ad the social concern which is that we know
we live in relation with others (through the use of reason).

We knew that preserving life is good. Thus, sexual inclination and acts are
good things, not something to be dismissed or deplored.

Recognizing how being rational is what is proper to man.

In making human laws, can be natural law like paying taxes and obeying
traffic rules.