2019

The Localization of the Global Agendas

How local action is transforming territories and communities

Middle East and

West Asia region
 © 2020 UCLG

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2 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

 The Localization
of the Global Agendas
How local action is transforming
territories and communities

The GOLD V Regional Report

on Middle East and West Asia

Edited by
UCLG and UCLG-MEWA

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 3

 Content
00
Preliminary remarks
Editorial board
Credits
Abbreviations and acronyms
Foreword
Background: Why SDG localization?

01
Introduction:
the Middle East and West
Asia region
Page 15

02
National and local institutional
frameworks for the
implementation of the SDGs
Page 18

2.1 National institutional frameworks

2.2. Local and regional government institutional
frameworks
2.3. Multilevel governance mechanisms and trends for
stakeholder involvement

03
The contribution of local and regional
governments to the localization
of the SDGs
Page 32

3.1. Promoting local ownership to localize the SDGs

3.2. Local initiatives in line with the 2030 Agenda

04
Conclusions and policy
recommendations: the state
of SDG localization in Middle
East and West Asia
Page 40

05
Policy recommendations
at the global level
Page 42

06
Notes
Page 50

Bibliography
Page 53

4 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

 Editorial board Credits
Coordination Cemal Bas, Head of Project and Financing
Edgardo Bilsky Department, Union of Municipalities of Turkey
Luc Aldon Carlos Rufín, Senior Associate, Institute
Anna Calvete for International Urban Development,
Andrea Ciambra Cambridge, United States
Ainara Fernández François Vigier (in memoriam),
Jolie Guzmán President, Institute for International Urban
Emilie Huet Development, Cambridge, United States
Mathilde Penard UCLG thanks the team of UCLG-MEWA,
and in particular Salim Korkmaz, General
Coordinator; as well as United Cities of Lebanon–
Policy advisory Technical Bureau of Lebanese Cities
Emilia Saiz, Secretary-General, UCLG
UCLG Executive Bureau, 2016-2019

Secretary-Generals of UCLG sections

·· Africa: Jean-Pierre Elong Mbassi, UCLG Africa
·· Asia-Pacific: Bernadia Tjandradewi, UCLG ASPAC
·· Eurasia: Rasikh Sagitov, UCLG Eurasia
·· Europe: Fréderic Vallier, CEMR
·· Latin America - CORDIAL: Sergio Arredondo,
FLACMA, Nelson Fernández, Mercociudades
·· Middle East and West Asia: Mehmet
Duman, UCLG-MEWA
·· Metropolis: Octavi de la Varga
·· North America: Brock Carlton, FCM

UCLG World Secretariat

With special inputs from networks involved in the
Global Taskforce of Local and Regional Governments
With special thanks for their contribution to (www.global-taskforce.org)
the Barcelona Provincial Council (International
Relations Directorate) and in particular to
Kontxi Odriozola and Ana Tapia.

Special acknowledgements for the financial

and advisory support of:

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 5

 Abbreviations and Acronyms

A
NGO – Non-governmental organization
ASPAC – Asia-Pacific
NUA – New Urban Agenda
NUP – National urban policy
B
BRT – Bus Rapid Transit P
BTVL – Bureau Technique des Villes Libanaises
PNDES – Plan national de développement économique
(Lebanese Cities Technical Office)
et social (National Plan of Economic and Social
Development, Burkina Faso)
C PPP – Public-Private Partnership
CLGF – Commonwealth Local Government Forum PPPP – Public-Private-People Partnership
CO2 – Carbon dioxide PSB – Presidency of Strategy and Budget (Turkey)
CSO – Civil society organization
S
D SDG – Sustainable Development Goal
DRR – Disaster Risk Reduction SIDA – Swedish International Development Agency
SNG – Sub-national government
E
T
EU – European Union
TALD – Territorial approach to local development
G
U
GCC – Gulf Cooperation Council
GDP – Gross domestic product UAE – United Arab Emirates
GHG – Greenhouse gas UCLG – United Cities and Local Governments
GOLD – Global Observatory on Local Democracy and UMT – Union of Municipalities of Turkey
Decentralization UN – United Nations
GTF – Global Taskforce of Local and Regional UNCDF – United Nations Capital Development Fund
Governments UNDESA – United Nations Department for Economic
and Social Affairs
H UNDP – United Nations Development Programme
UNDRR – United Nations Office for Disaster Risk
HLPF – United Nations High-Level Political Forum on Reduction
Sustainable Development UNEP – United Nations Environment Programme
UN-Habitat – United Nations Human Settlements
I Programme
UNHCR – United Nations Refugee Agency
IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
UNRWA – United Nations Relief and Works Agency for
IT – Information Technology
Palestine Refugees in the Near East (Palestine)
UNSG – United Nations Secretary-General
K
UNV – United Nations Volunteers
Km – Kilometre U.S. – United States
KRG – Kurdistan Regional Government USAID – United States Agency for International
Development
L USD – U.S. dollar

LGA – Local government association V

LGCP – Local Government Capacity Programme
(Palestine) VLR – Voluntary Local Review
LRG – Local and regional government VNG – Vereniging van Nederlandse Gemeenten
(Association of Netherlands Municipalities)
M VNGi – VNG International
VNR – Voluntary National Review
MDG – Millennium Development Goal
MDLF – Municipal Development and Lending Fund W
MEWA – Middle East and West Asia
MLG – Multilevel governance WALD – World Academy for Local Government and
Democracy
N
#
NDP – National development plan
NDS – National development strategy 100RC – 100 Resilient Cities Project

6 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

 Foreword

It is my pleasure to greet you with the Regional This Report also highlights how, within the
Report on Middle East and West Asia, derived current institutional frameworks, the involvement
from the Fifth Edition of the Global Report on of local and regional governments in coordination
Decentralization and Local Democracy, UCLG’s mechanisms and monitoring and reporting
flagship publication. processes is essential to create a sense of
At present, municipalities, which carry collective responsibility for the achievement of
out and undertake many important tasks and more equitable, fairer and sustainable societies,
responsibilities particularly in the context of the as embodied in the commitments of the Agenda
localization of the Sustainable Development 2030.
Goals (SDGs), have developed many strategies to We, as the representatives of the MEWA region,
achieve long-term wellbeing, peace, sustainability are proud to have contributed to this Report,
and many other commitments of the global advocating the need to include an urban and
agendas. However, for these international agendas territorial perspective, with a specific reference to
to live up to their historic potential and foster our region, in the global agendas. We were pleased
the transformation they seek to achieve, strong to see that these efforts in turn showed us the
ownership at the local level is essential. growing role that local and regional governments
Building upon this perspective, the GOLD are playing in the localization and in ensuring
V Report, titled 'The Localization of the Global sustainable development.
Agendas', seeks to present an up-to-date global We hope you will be inspired by this tool and
mapping of the processes of localization of the SDGs, foster the transformation you seek to achieve.
and in particular how decentralization and multilevel Please accept my best wishes for a prosperous,
governance contribute to these processes. peaceful future and my kindest regards.

Mehmet Duman
Secretary-General
United Cities and Local Governments
Middle East and West Asia Section

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 7

 Background:
Why SDG localization?

In 2015 and 2016, world leaders came We currently stand at the end of the first
together to set a historic milestone in quadrennial cycle of implementation of the
multilateral cooperation with the adoption SDGs, which means that the worldwide state of
of global agreements towards sustainable implementation of each SDG has been evaluated
development. The 2030 Agenda and the 17 at least once. Consequently, the international
Sustainable Development Goals, the New community is taking this time to take stock of the
Urban Agenda, the Paris Agreement on progress made, the trends that have emerged
climate change, the Sendai Framework on and the challenges encountered over these past
Disaster Risk Reduction and the Addis Ababa four years, and these will be discussed at the
Action Agenda on Financing for Development
all showcased a global will to respond to
today’s global challenges through the Box 1
adoption of a firm rights-based approach.
Local and regional governments (LRGs)
have risen to the scale of the challenge, ‘Whole-of-government’
demonstrating their commitment to the and ‘whole-of-society’
realization of the global agendas by putting in
place elaboration, adoption and implementation
approaches
processes. From their perspective, the global
agendas are interlinked and cannot be achieved Multilevel and collaborative governance
in isolation: all sustainability actions to address frameworks that emphasize the need to
the highly interrelated challenges affecting our approach policy-making processes in an
territories and cities must be fully integrated integrated way, factoring in all government
and comprehensive. The 2030 Agenda has bodies and members of society. Adopting
been widely embraced across territories these approaches is critical for advancing
and represents a significant step forward in sustainable development, since they
terms of ambition, universality and complexity constitute the basis for policy coherence
with respect to the Millennium Development (see Box 7) by requiring policy-making to
Goals (MDGs). The interconnectedness of the happen in an integrated manner beyond
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) provides, institutional siloes, promoting synergies
on the one hand, our best shot at tackling the and improving public accountability. Putting
multi-dimensional challenges facing our societies. governance frameworks in place requires
On the other, it requires a significant step up in the establishment of adequate coordination
policy-making efforts and the adoption of a truly and participation mechanisms that ensure
integrated approach that ensures that ‘no one that sub-national governments (SNGs) and
and no place are left behind’ — in other words, members of society take part effectively in
the UN ‘whole-of-government’ and ‘whole- policy design, implementation and monitoring
of-society’ approach to development (see Box processes at all levels of government.
1), encompassing a truly multilevel and multi-
Source: UNPAN; GTF, UCLG (2019), 'Towards the Localization of
stakeholder governance system that puts people the SDGs'.
at the centre of development (see Box 2).

8 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

SDG Summit in September 2019. According to how to promote integrated policies and actions
the UN’s quadrennial Global Sustainable Report that meet today’s challenges from the local and
and the UN Secretary-General 2019 Special regional perspective.
Report, positive trends have emerged at the The report highlights how, as part of their day-
aggregate global level, in particular regarding to-day responsibilities, LRGs are implementing
the implementation of SDGs 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 11 and policies and carrying out actions which although
14.1 Extreme poverty, child mortality rates and not always officially ‘SDG-labelled’, have a direct
the share of the urban population living in slums impact on populations’ access to infrastructure,
continue to decrease, while progress has been services and life opportunities. As acknowledged
made with respect to health, certain gender by the UN General Assembly, the UNSG and the
equality targets and access to electricity in poor Habitat III consensus, the decarbonization of our
territories. However, the shift towards a new economies and ensuring access to energy, water,
sustainability paradigm is not taking place at the food, transport and infrastructure will ultimately
pace and scale required to trigger the necessary be achieved through project-level investments
transformation to meet the Goals by 2030. The that take place mostly at the sub-national level
incidence of hunger has continued to spread in and are led by LRGs.4 It is thus crucial to build up
2019, a trend observed since 2016. Greenhouse a critical mass of knowledge about how territories
gas (GHG) emissions, 70% of which cities are and cities are progressing towards sustainability,
responsible for, also continue to increase, while what initiatives are being put forward and what
the loss of biodiversity continues to accelerate obstacles are being encountered if we are to
dramatically as the intensity of climate change achieve the SDGs and other global agendas.
worsens.2 Despite the progress made in poverty One of the main transformations humanity
reduction, rising inequality continues to fuel the is experiencing is the rapid urbanization of
exclusion of discriminated and disadvantaged society, and in this respect LRGs find themselves
populations (such as the poor, women, youth, the increasingly at the centre of many crucial
elderly, people with disabilities, ethnic and sexual challenges. The percentage of the world’s
minorities, amongst others). Moreover, although population living in urban areas is expected
the means of implementation are progressing, to rise from 55% to nearly 70% by 2050 — an
finance for sustainable development remains increase of 2.3 billion urban dwellers likely to be
an ongoing issue. Institutions often depleted concentrated in low and lower middle-income
by territorial conflict are not robust enough to territories where urbanization is happening at
respond to the magnitude of the interrelated the fastest rate. Changes in population growth,
challenges they face. age composition and migration patterns heavily
As stressed by the UN Secretary-General impact urbanization pathways and those of the
(UNSG), the current social, economic and surrounding territories, cutting across a wide
environmental trends that are shaping the world range of SDGs — for example poverty eradication,
have a major impact on the realization of the access to food and water, health, gender equality,
SDGs and present a daunting challenge in terms economic growth and decent work, the reduction
of meeting the Goals in the mandated time. The of inequalities and promoting sustainable cities
UNSG identifies five such trends — urbanization,
demographic change, climate change, protracted
crises and frontier technologies.3 The interactions, Box 2
synergies and trade-offs between these trends
give rise to highly complex and interconnected
policy-making environments at local, national and Multilevel governance
international levels. One of the main objectives
of the GOLD V Report has been to examine how
A decision-making system based on coordination mechanisms that
LRGs are contributing to the achievement of the
allow the allocation of competences and responsibilities of government
global agendas in the face of such trends. These
both vertically and horizontally in accordance with the principle of
agendas — and the commitment of LRGs to
subsidiarity (see Box 6) and that respect local autonomy. This system
achieving them — are changing our societies and
recognizes that there is no optimal level of decentralization (see Box
promoting the evolution of good governance and
5) and that implementation and competences are strongly context-
citizen participation in highly diverse contexts all
specific: complete separation of responsibilities and outcomes in policy-
around the world. It is therefore critical to take this
making cannot be achieved and different levels of government are
time to better understand where LRGs stand with
interdependent. Multilevel governance necessitates all levels sharing
respect to SDG implementation, and to revisit
information and collaborating fully, so that every level can publicly and
policy-making processes in order to take full
accountably lead horizontal relations with respective stakeholders to
advantage of the mutually reinforcing potential of
optimize policy outcomes.
global agendas and local processes as catalysers
Source: UCLG (2016), 'Fourth Global Report on Local Democracy and Decentralization.
for change. The aim of the GOLD V Report is to Co-creating the Urban Future'.
contribute to such an endeavour, looking at

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 9

 that are better articulated with their hinterlands warmed by 1°C above pre-industrial levels and, at
— which significantly influences the prospects the current rate of warming of 0.2°C per decade,
for SDG implementation. At the aggregate level, global warming will reach 1.5°C by 2030. This
world population growth has slowed compared report stresses the pivotal role played by cities
with ten years ago and stands at an annual growth in climate change mitigation and in reaching the
rate of 1.1%.5 However, such figures mask highly agreed goal of limiting climate change to 2°C,
heterogeneous demographic patterns between and if possible 1.5°C. Allowing global warming
regions and urban and rural territories. to reach 2°C will critically endanger natural and
While more than half the growth forecast human systems and will particularly affect the
between 2019 and 2050 (estimated at two billion most vulnerable populations and territories. Since
people) is expected to take place in Africa, Asia 1990, climate-related extreme disasters have
is expected to grow by 650 million people, Latin more than doubled. This, together with drastically
America by 180 million whilst Europe’s population changing weather conditions, is causing
is expected to decrease.6 Population growth unquantifiable suffering and loss of human life
will be concentrated in the least economically and the destruction of infrastructure, aggravating
developed regions, which will make it even resource scarcity and forcing the displacement
harder for those territories and cities to eradicate of populations. Existing tensions act as risk
poverty and hunger and improve the provision of multipliers for violence, putting additional
education, health and basic services. Moreover, pressure on often fragile political systems and
the number of persons aged over 60 is expected resources. Since 2010, state-based and non-
to rise to 1.4 billion by 2030, although the pace state-based conflicts have risen by 60% and
at which the population is aging varies greatly 125% respectively, while the number of globally
between world regions. By 2050, all regions of the displaced people has doubled over the past 20
world are expected to have more than 25% of their years to reach 65 million.7 The deterioration of
populations aged over 60 — with the exception global peace constitutes a fundamental threat
of Africa, which is expected to concentrate the to the rule of law and good governance and,
world’s largest share of population aged between consequently, to the cornerstones of sustainable
15 and 19. Aging territories and cities will face development.
increasing fiscal and political pressure to provide In the face of such challenges, it is imperative
the elderly with pensions and social protection. that we scale up and accelerate action before
At the same time, it will be critical for territories it is too late. In order to do so, we need to think
and cities with swelling youth populations to differently about development strategies and
provide adequate healthcare, education and job adopt an evidence-based approach to sustainable
opportunities to ensure the implementation of development that reflects the reality of today’s
the 2030 Agenda. world. Urbanization, the development of frontier
Climate and environmental challenges are technologies and connectivity are some of the
profoundly reshaping our territories and have defining features of our contemporary societies,
a direct impact on cities. According to the and although they pose challenges to governance,
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change they are also the key to achieving the SDGs and
(IPCC) 2018 Special Report, the world has already preserving life for future generations.

The Local and Regional

Governments’ Forum,
organized by the Global
Taskforce, during the United
Nations’ SDG Summit in New
York on September 24, 2019
(photo: UCLG-CGLU/Ege Okal,
bit.ly/2naVvsb).

10 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

Purposes and goals
of the report

The purpose of the GOLD V Report is to local processes. The transformational potential
propose how these ambitious Global Goals of a territorial approach to local development
and objectives can be met through policies, (TALD) is enormous (see Box 4). Yet, in order to
actions and initiatives designed and put in fully unleash it and ensure the implementation
place by the territories and communities of the global development agendas, important
that make up cities, towns and regions. challenges must be tackled. Significant efforts
The report suggests that this cannot be have been made since 2015 to implement the
done unless urban and territorial planning, 2030 Agenda’s provisions and advance towards
strategic design, institutional environments the achievement of the Goals. However, given the
and political roadmaps are fully embedded in multi-dimensional challenges our societies are
the territories, i.e. ‘territorialized’, taking full facing, the 2030 Agenda and the SDGs call for a
advantage of local potentialities, involving all move beyond narrow targeted policy-making
local stakeholders and building on local needs towards a review of governance culture and
and demands. In other words, these goals can
only be achieved through a fully-fledged, co-
owned and accountable process of localization
of the global agendas (see Box 3). Box 3
Territories and cities can lead transformational
processes that promote development models
that are both respectful of the environment and
Localization
put people first. Territorialized development
strategies based on integrated planning have The 2030 Agenda emphasizes the need
the power to transform cities and territories, for an inclusive and localized approach to
foster inclusion, reduce resource usage and GHG the SDGs. Localization is described as ‘the
emissions, and improve rural-urban linkages. process of defining, implementing and
When coupled with cutting-edge technologies, monitoring strategies at the local level for
the economies of scale facilitated by cities and achieving global, national, and sub-national
their ability to attract innovation become major sustainable development goals and targets.’
catalysts for the achievement of the SDGs, allowing More specifically, it takes into account sub-
for the development of alternative patterns of national contexts for the achievement of
production and consumption, decentralized the 2030 Agenda, from the setting of goals
renewable energy systems, individualized and targets to determining the means of
healthcare, natural disaster detection solutions, implementation and using indicators to
and stronger bonds between cities, towns and measure and monitor progress.
their hinterlands. The possibilities are endless.
As shown throughout the GOLD V Report, such Source: GTF, UCLG (2019), 'Towards the Localization of
the SDGs'; GTF, UNDP, UN-Habitat (2016), 'Roadmap for
localized development strategies, developed Localizing the SDGs: Implementation and Monitoring at Sub-
national Level'; UN Development Group (2014), 'Localizing
from and suited to local realities, also have an the Post2015 Agenda' (outcome of the global UN dialogue
impact on the global process of transforming process realized from June 2014 to October 2014).

development, which in turn reinforces sustainable

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 11

 institutions. As discussed in the GOLD V Report, This is important for shedding light on a
existing national strategies and institutional number of related issues affecting (and changing)
frameworks for SDG implementation, as well as the development policy globally. As stated
state of decentralization and the means available previously, this study primarily aims to show the
for local implementation of the global agendas, state of progress of SDG achievement in the
determine the transformational strength that territories and emphasize its critical importance
local action can achieve (see Box 5). Questions for the realization of the global agendas. On
thus arise: can the SDGs both inspire local action the one hand, it is widely acknowledged that
and influence such institutional environments?; fulfilment of the 2030 Agenda requires the full
and can local action arising from the cities and engagement and commitment of all levels of
territories translate into global change? governance including LRGs, civil society and
local stakeholders such as the private sector,
social partners, academia and grassroots
organizations. On the other, territories and
Box 4 local communities are where implementation
is taking place. The key question addressed
Territorial approach to by the GOLD V Report is the extent to which
towns, cities, provinces and regions have been
local development (TALD) able — through their actions and initiatives — to
become part of the solution to the fundamental
National development policy that recognizes
and historic challenges they face. Analyzing the
local development as being endogenous,
progress that local governments are making
incremental, spatially integrated and multi-
in the implementation of the Goals and their
scalar, and which acknowledges the primary
‘localization’ — bringing them down to the local
responsibility of local authorities for plan-
level, rethinking and re-designing them so that
ning, managing and financing such local
they fit with the characteristics and demands of
development — in other words, development
citizens and territories — is an indication of how
that enables autonomous and accountable
well the SDG framework itself is developing, and
local authorities to leverage the contribution of
how much there is still left to do.
actors operating at multiple scales to produce
The GOLD V Report also aims to provide
public goods and services tailored to the local
an updated picture on the current state of
reality, which in turn brings incremental value
decentralization around the world. Achieving
to national development efforts.
the SDGs and the other global agendas at
Source: European Commission DEVCO (2016), the local level will not be possible unless
'Supporting decentralization, local governance and
local development through a territorial approach'.
territories, communities, and local authorities
at different sub-national levels are adequately
empowered, supported and funded. This implies
strengthening and improving decentralization of
Box 5 the political system, promoting the devolution
of competences and powers, ensuring respect
Decentralization for the principle of subsidiarity and making local
governments responsible and accountable (see
Box 6).
The existence of local authorities, as distinct from the state’s
This regional report includes an analysis of
administrative authorities, to whom the legal framework allocates
national strategies for the implementation of the
powers, resources and capacities to exercise a degree of self-
2030 Agenda and how LRGs are being engaged
government in order to meet the allocated responsibilities. Their
in this process, whether the institutional
decision-making legitimacy is underpinned by representative,
framework enables LRGs to be proactive in the
elected local democratic structures that determine how power
implementation of these agendas, and the status
is exercised and make local authorities accountable to citizens in
of decentralization in the region. The report
their jurisdiction.
aims to answer questions on decentralization
The World Observatory on Subnational Government Finance
trends and the development of a truly multilevel
and Investment proposes the following definition: ‘decentralization
understanding of policy-making: are LRGs more
consists of the transfer of powers, responsibilities and resources
empowered and active than they used to be?;
from central government to sub-national governments, defined
have the SDGs and the other global agendas
as separated legal entities elected by universal suffrage and
driven any change in institutional relationships
having some degree of autonomy’.
and vertical/horizontal cooperation?; are national
planning and decision-making mechanisms and
Source: UN Habitat (2009), 'International Guidelines on Decentralisation and Access
to Basic Services'; UCLG (2008), 'Decentralization and Local Democracy in the systems more open, sensitive to and aware of
World,First Global Report on Local Democracy and Decentralization'; OECD-UCLG
(2019), 'World Observatory on Subnational Government Finance and Investments'.
LRGs and their unique potential within territories
and communities to effect change?

12 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

 Looking at decentralization and providing up-
to-date mapping of how this trend has evolved Box 6
are all the more essential in studying territorial
and municipal authorities, given that rapid (and Subsidiarity
often uncontrolled) urbanization has become
a worldwide phenomenon and a fundamental
The principle according to which public responsibilities should
challenge facing local governance. Urbanization
be exercised by those elected authorities closest to citizens.
has had a crucial impact on several dimensions
The central authority should have a subsidiary function,
of local and regional governance: from urban
performing only those responsibilities or tasks which cannot be
and territorial planning, to the provision of basic
performed at a more local level. Subsidiarity requires that local
public services; from socio-economic equality to
governments have adequate financial, managerial and technical
marginalization and informality in housing and
and professional resources to enable them to assume their
work; from the inevitable impact of climate change
responsibilities to meet local needs, carrying out a significant
to the creation of new social and cross-cutting
share of public expenditure. Local governments should be
alliances to improve democracy, transparency and
granted the authority and power to raise local resources in
the quality of life in cities and territories. However,
line with the principle that authority be commensurate with
advances in these fields raise fundamental
responsibility as well as the availability of resources. The principle
questions of sustainability and viability. The
of subsidiarity constitutes the rationale underlying the process
global agendas were agreed with the expectation
of decentralization.
that LRGs would act as accelerators and catalysts
in the process, but how is this pressure altering
the political balance? What room is there for LRGs Source: UN Habitat, 'International Guidelines on Decentralisation and Access to
Basic Services' (2009); UCLG (2013), 'Third Global Report on Local Democracy
to see their competences, powers, capacities, and Decentralization. Basic Services for All in an Urbanizing World'.
financial and human resources grow and improve,
making them more aware, responsible and
able to play an active role in the global quest
for sustainability, prosperity and inclusiveness? and the global agendas a reality, with positive
What kind of financial autonomy is really granted effects on the quality of life of territories, cities,
to local and regional governments? There are communities and society? Can the SDGs trigger
plenty of financial and management instruments a new model of development — urban, territorial,
(climate and green bonds, Public-Private-People social, economic and human — which starts at the
Partnerships — PPPPs — and remunicipalizations, local level? This regional report provides inputs,
amongst many others) that are changing the way answers and critiques of these points, as well as
actors are empowered at all levels to become exploring other relevant issues. The conclusions
drivers of change and leaders in policy-making. In and policy recommendations provide a common
what way are these new opportunities accessible vision and understanding of the way forward for
to local governments? And how can those that are LRGs.
more visionary and long-sighted fund and sustain
their policies and agendas in the long term?
The ability of LRGs to report on their policies
and actions is also problematic since it is currently
limited by a substantial lack of data, indicators Box 7
and measurement which historically has not been
devolved or disaggregated enough (with the Policy coherence
partial exception of larger and wealthier regions
and cities), hindering the capacity to grasp the
An approach to sustainable development that
huge potential at the local level for the localization
calls for the integration of economic, social,
and achievement of the Goals.
environmental and governance dimensions
Ultimately, the responsibilities that LRGs
in the policy-making process, acknowledging
are assuming in the localization of the SDGs
the critical interlinkages that exist between
and other agendas are raising fundamental
the SDGs. It aims to foster synergies, promote
questions of local democracy, accountability
partnerships and balance transboundary and
and transparency, representation and the place
intergenerational policy impacts in order to
occupied by the local level in the current global
identify and manage the relationships between
system. Can LRGs be catalysts for change in
SDGs in a way that limits and overcomes any
politics and development policy? Do LRGs have
potential negative impact resulting from their
the means and capacities to ensure that ‘no
implementation.
person or place is left behind’? Can effective
intergovernmental cooperation across all levels of
Source: OECD (2019), 'Policy Coherence for
governance improve performance, boost policy Sustainable Development 2019'.
coherence (see Box 7) and help make the SDGs

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 13

 The Middle East
and West Asia
region
West
Asia

Middle East
Asia

Middle East West

Asia Asia

Bahrain Afghanistan
Iraq Iran
Jordan
Kuwait
Lebanon
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
State of Palestine
Syria
Turkey
United Arab Emirates
Yemen

14 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

 01. Introduction:
the Middle East and
West Asia region

The Middle East and West Asia (MEWA) region While the discovery of oil in the 20th century
presents distinct and significant challenges with gave Iraq and Iran substantial wealth that allowed
regard to the involvement of local and regional them to develop an industrial base, the economic
governments (LRGs) in the achievement of the base in Afghanistan, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine,
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). With Syria and Yemen has been unable to keep up with
a historical record of strong centralization and population growth, and urban unemployment
authoritarian regimes, the region has in recent has generally risen. In some countries, Jordan
years felt the impact of extensive conflicts and Palestine in particular, the remittances of
in Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan and Yemen, and expatriate workers in Gulf states and Western
experienced high population growth and rapid Crowd in Istiklal Caddesi,
Istanbul, Turkey (photo:
urbanization. © Jaume Puigpinós Serra).
With around 364 million inhabitants, the
MEWA region is one of extreme heterogeneity.1
Thanks to their oil wealth, the Gulf Cooperation
Council (GCC) monarchies — Bahrain, Kuwait,
Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab
Emirates (UAE) — are among the wealthiest
countries of the world with a gross domestic
product (GDP) per capita, purchasing power
parity, ranging from USD 50,526 to USD 154,008.
The State of Palestine, Yemen and Afghanistan,
meanwhile, are among the poorest (USD 4,885,
USD 2,150 and USD 1,981 respectively). With the
exception of Afghanistan and Yemen, the region
is highly urbanized: 67% of its population live in
cities. Jordan and the GCC countries are the most
urbanized with nearly 84% of their populations
living in urban settlements; Afghanistan and
Yemen are the least urbanized with 27% and 35%
respectively of their populations living in cities.
Israel is not included in this analysis.
Large-scale migration from rural areas and
the massive influx of refugees has accelerated
urban growth, with a current annual growth rate
of 2.6%.2 This has led to overcrowding of existing
built areas and the growth of informal settlements.
Climate change, in the context of fragile natural
systems, has exacerbated access to basic services
problems, particularly with regard to access to
water, and thus the ability to provide an essential
service. Over 50% of the population are under 25
and young workers aged 15-25 account for 20%
of the labour force.3

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT—— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 15

 displacement of vulnerable populations. Even
Despite recurring conflicts, political though most of the 4.3 million people that fled to
Iran and Pakistan have since returned, their need
turmoil and civil unrest, most countries for shelter, services and economic integration is
had made significant economic progress. placing huge pressures on the local economy.4 In
Iraq, the 2003 war caused widespread destruction
in most cities, including Baghdad, Basrah
and Mosul, and severe damage to the civilian
Europe have financed a rapid urbanization. Oil infrastructure. The 2014 invasion of the Western
wealth has allowed the GCC countries to embark part of the country by Da’esh fighters resulted in
on ambitious development programmes and chaotic conditions, and cities as well as smaller
urban megaprojects that rival western models. towns and villages suffered extensive physical
Since the beginning of the century, a succession damage and devastation.
of wars and sectarian conflict have afflicted While Syria’s civil war shows signs of winding
large parts of the MEWA region. The State of down, the destruction of national infrastructure
Palestine (West Bank and Gaza) is still under and of urban areas has been massive. Refugees
Israeli occupation and/or blockade. The civil war fleeing the conflict have moved to neighbouring
in Afghanistan caused massive destruction and countries with approximately 3.6 million refugees

16 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

in Turkey, 1.1 million in Lebanon, 630,000 in devastated Syria but also affected Iraq, Jordan,
Jordan, 245,000 in Iraq, and 118,000 in Egypt.5 Lebanon and Turkey, as displaced populations
In Jordan and Lebanon, most refugees are living sought refuge and traditional regional economic
in densely settled urban areas, driving up housing ties were severed.
costs and placing stress on available public Jordan has borne much of the brunt of
services. One of the two poorest countries in the the crises at its borders. Wars and conflicts in
region, Yemen has been in the throes of a civil war neighbouring countries have resulted in waves
since 2014, and over 22 million people — three- of refugees and displaced persons, imposing
quarters of the population — forcibly displaced serious economic challenges and fuelling an
in multiple waves are in desperate need of aid increase in poverty, unemployment rates and
and protection. An estimated 13.5 million people stresses on infrastructure and services. Jordan’s
(including six million children) have been in need population in 2015 was 9.5 million, nearly 40% of
of one form or another of humanitarian aid: food, whom were refugees, displaced by the four Arab-
potable water, sanitation and waste disposal. Israeli wars and granted Jordanian citizenship. In
Despite recurring conflicts, political turmoil and spite of the negative effect of regional conflicts,
civil unrest, most countries had made significant Jordan made remarkable progress towards
economic progress before the outbreak of the meeting the Millennium Development Goals
Syrian civil war in early 2011. The conflict not only (MDGs). The absolute poverty rate dropped from
approximately 21% in 1990 to 14.4% in 2010.
It is a similar story in Lebanon. Following the
1948 Arab-Israeli war, Lebanon was second only to
Jordan as a country of destination for Palestinian
refugees, 504,000 of whom are currently registered
by the United National Relief and Works Agency
for Palestine (UNRWA).6 As a result of the Syrian
civil war, more than a million people displaced
by the conflict have found refuge in Lebanon.
The government estimates that the country now
hosts 1.1 million refugees; this includes nearly one
million Syrians registered with the United Nations
Refugee Agency (UNHCR), 31,000 Palestinians
displaced from Syria, and 35,000 Lebanese
returnees from Syria.
Based on this framework, this publication
provides a broad description and analysis
of the challenges and opportunities for the
implementation of the SDGs by LRGs in the
MEWA region. The first part of the publication
describes the engagement with the SDG
agenda at the national level, the participation
of LRGs and the institutional context for SDG
implementation, including recent trends regarding
(de)centralization and the governance frameworks
of LRGs, particularly as regards decision-making.
The second part of the regional report focuses on
the specific efforts of LRGs across the region to
contribute to the SDGs, as well as those of local
civil society and those supported by external
actors. The analysis takes a comprehensive view
of these initiatives, considering not only those
explicitly identified with the SDGs, but also
efforts whose outcomes are directly related to the
SDGs, even if no explicit linkage to the framework
is established in their formulation. The last
section presents a set of conclusions and policy
recommendations for both the MEWA region and
the global sphere.

Kids playing and resting in

UNRWA Training Centre in
Siblin, Lebanon (photo: Silvio
Arcangeli, bit.ly/2Mn9Iuo).

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 17

 02. National and local
institutional frameworks
for the implementation
of the SDGs

18 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

2.1 National frameworks

The MEWA region countries share a tradition of for indicators are lacking and, since over half
centralized systems of governance that inevitably of government expenditure is dedicated to
influences the SDG implementation process. All security, the country’s capacity to implement SDG
countries in the region have similar multi-tiered policies remains limited. The 2017 VNR mentions
governance structures: governorates, districts the importance of SDG localization, while also
and municipalities in urbanized areas, and highlighting that this can only be achieved after
governorates and villages in rural areas.7 This adoption at the national level.
multi-tiered system of governance is reflected In Iraq, the government has divided the
in the institutional structures that are being 17 SDGs into eight socio-economic sectors:
created in each country for the implementation security, education, health, governance,
of the SDGs. With the exception of Syria infrastructure, social protection, agriculture and
and Yemen, SDG principles have been rural development, and economy. It has identified
incorporated in current national development 169 specific national targets and 217 indicators. A
strategies (NDSs) across the region, with some Social Fund for Development has been established
modifications that reflect the Islamic values that to support the implementation of the SDGs at the
prevail in many countries. local level.10 Moreover, the central level has created
Twelve MEWA countries submitted their an SDG National Coordination Commission, SDG
Voluntary National Reviews (VNRs) to the High- Secretariat, Technical Coordination Committees,
Level Political Forum (HLPF) in the 2016-2019 Technical Working Groups, and an SDG High-Level
period.8 Almost all countries share the same Board to ensure smoother implementation. The
mechanisms of follow-up and implementation Global Initiative Towards a Sustainable Iraq (GITSI)
of the SDGs: a high-level council of ministries; a is a further acknowledgement of the importance of
national coordination committee; or a national including LRGs in the process.
commission for sustainable development, formed The government of Iran has not yet declared
by various ministry-level representatives and when it will report to the HLPF. SDG stakeholders
usually led by one ministry in particular, often the include the Sustainable Development
one in charge of territorial or urban planning (see Steering Council, the national legislature, local
Table 1). Consultation processes and partnership governments, academia, civil society, and the
methods are not always well-defined, even private sector.11
when a consultation process has been explicitly In the GCC countries, the implementation
mentioned in the VNR. The participation of local of the SDGs is primarily the responsibility of
governments is often determined by their legal national ministries. Qatar has aligned the SDGs
position in the country's political system, but it is
mostly limited or even non-existent (see Table 1).
In Afghanistan, the primary SDG implementing
agency is the Ministry of Economy, through its In the MEWA region, the participation
SDG Secretariat (SD). While the SD’s mission
is to ensure a broad national participation and
of local governments is often determined
promote a sense of ownership among national by their legal position in the country's
stakeholders, all sub-national administrative
entities are institutionally and financially
political system, but is mostly limited
dependent on the central government.9 Accurate or even non-existent.
data for setting baselines and annual targets

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 19

 Table 1 National
strategies for integrating SDGs,
coordination mechanisms and LRG participation

Afghanistan Saudi Arabia

National Peace and Development Office) National Higher National Saudi Vision 2030, National
Framework (2016-2021) and Committee for Sustainable Transformation Programme 2020
integrated in 22 National Priority Development (created in and sector-specific strategies (e.g.
Programmes (NPPs). Coordination: 2002, headed by the Minister National Environmental Strategy, etc.
High Council of Minister (policy of Planning and International Coordination: Council of Ministers
guidance); Executive Committee Cooperation); Coordination (high-level political direction);
on the SDGs (in the Office of the Committee (oversees EDPs). Minister of Economy and Planning
Chief Executive – the President's (coordination entity); Council of
Office, and co-chaired by the Kuwait Economic and Development Affairs
Ministry of Economy); National Kuwait Vision 2035 and Kuwait (tasked with the implementation of
Coordination Committee National Development Plan Vision 2030); Strategy Committee
(inter-ministerial, includes multi- (2015-2020). Coordination: (proposes strategies for achieving
stakeholder engagement); National Sustainable Development Vision 2030).
Technical Coordination Committee. Committee, co-led by the
General Secretariat of the Turkey
10th and 11th National Development
Bahrain Supreme Council for Planning and
Development and the Ministry of Plans (2014-2018 and 2019-2023) and
Government Plan of Action
Foreign Affairs (MoFA); National Annual Programmes. Coordination:
2015-2018. Coordination: National
Observatory on Sustainable Presidency of Strategy and Budget
Information Committee (chaired by
Development and Anticipation of (PSB), under the Turkish Presidency;
the Minister of Cabinet Affairs).
the Future (multi-stakeholder). Department of Environment and
Sustainable Development (DESD),
Iran under PSB coordinates follow-up,
Iran has still not presented its Lebanon monitoring and reporting. Turkstat
VNR. It prepared the 6th National National Physical Master Plan
produces the required data.
Five-Year Development Plan of the Lebanese Territory
2017-2022, and other sectoral (2009) but does not yet have a
plans (e.g. Climate Change Plan, national integrated sustainable United Arab Emirates (UAE)
development framework. Vision 2021 (adopted in 2005); Vision
Health Transformation Plan), and
Coordination: National Committee 2071 (UAE Centennial Strategy),
will prepare a national sustainable
for the SDGs, headed by the Prime launched in 2017; Emirates' own
development strategy (NSDS).
Minister (multi-stakeholder). national development plan (NDPs)
Coordination: National Committee
(for five out of seven emirates);
for Sustainable Development (but
National Key Performance Indicators
a new mechanism will be created).
Oman aligned with the SDGs. Coordination:
'Oman 2040' and the 9th National Committee on SDGs
Iraq Development Plan 2016-2020. (chaired by the Minister of State
Iraq Vision 2030, National Coordination: National Committee for International Cooperation and
Development Plan 2018-2022 for the SDGs, created under the by the Chairwoman of the Federal
and Poverty Reduction Strategy. High-Level Council on Planning. Competitiveness and Statistics
Coordination: National Commission Authority).
for Sustainable Development
Palestine (State of)
(chaired by the Ministry of
National Policy Agenda 2017-2022.
Planning), SDG Secretariat;
Coordination: National SDG Team
Technical Coordination
(headed by the Prime Minister),
Middle East
Committees; Technical Working
supported by 12 SDG working and West Asia
Groups, and an SDG High-Level
groups (multi-stakeholder).
Board Monitoring Committee,
headed by the Ministry of Planning
(multi-stakeholder, consultative Qatar
body); Governorate Committees Qatar National Vision 2030 and
for Sustainable Development. National Development Strategy
2018-2022. Coordination: Council
of Ministers (oversight); Ministry of
Jordan
Development Planning and Statis-
Jordan 2025, Executive
tics (coordination entity).
Development Programmes
(EDPs), 2016-2019, Roadmap for
SDG Implementation, thematic
strategies (e.g. Economic Growth
Plan 2018-2022). Coordination:
Sources: UNDESA, 'Compendium of National
Higher Steering Committee Institutional Arrangements for the SDGs
(headed by the Prime Minister's 2016-2017 and 2018'; VNRs; UCLG surveys.

20 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

with its own Qatar National Vision 2030. The
Ministry of Development, Planning and Statistics
(MDPS) is in charge of implementing both the
With the exception of Syria and Yemen,
National Vision 2030 and the SDGs, and has SDG principles have been incorporated
incorporated the 2030 Agenda in different
sectors and established various dedicated task
in current national development
teams. At least eight municipalities have drafted strategies (NDSs) with modifications
spatial development plans.12
In Bahrain, SDG implementation is based
that reflect the Islamic values that
on a government Plan of Action, under the prevail in many MEWA countries.
responsibility of the National Information
Committee, chaired by the Minister of Cabinet
Affairs and designed to bring together all units
of the central government involved in SDG
aim of reducing the poverty rate to 8% by 2015
implementation, reporting through the National
and 7% by 2030), including consultations with
Statistical Office.13 The consultation process
stakeholders. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Planning
has involved community groups, civil society
and International Cooperation is in charge of
organizations (CSOs), and private sector, although
reporting progress. In Lebanon, a national
there is no reference to the engagement of the
committee to implement the SDGs was formed in
country’s five governorates. While governorate
2017, with members including ministerial officials,
councillors are in fact elected, governors are
and representatives from CSOs and the private
appointed by the monarchy: the Bahraini VNR
sector. This is chaired by the Prime Minister.
consequently considered governorates as an
Sub-committees monitor the implementation
extension of the national government.
of each thematic component. While workshops
Saudi Arabia reported in 2018 by adapting
were held for central government agencies,
its Saudi Vision 2030 to the SDG framework.
the private sector and CSOs, none was held for
Implementation efforts are led by the Ministry of
LRGs.15 Although Palestine has incorporated
Economy and Planning, which is also the body
the SDGs in its national strategy and submitted
in charge of reporting and data collection from
a VNR in 2018, little progress has been achieved
other ministries and relevant stakeholders. The
because of limited resources and the continued
Saudi VNR puts emphasis on the private sector’s
Israeli occupation of the West Bank and blockade
engagement in the SDG process as part of a trend
of Gaza. No specific SDG-based consultative
of economic diversification. The role of LRGs in
process with local governments has yet been
this process, however, is not clear: the consultation
established.16
process was given no visibility, except for the
Turkey was the first MEWA country to submit a
Future Saudi Cities Programme, linked to the
VNR in 2016 and again in 2019. Turkey’s national
Saudi Vision 2030.
development plan (NDP) was prepared by the
Kuwait’s approach to the SDGs has
Ministry of Development (MoD). The government,
been guided by the Kuwait Vision 2035 and
however, has since been restructured within the
mainstreamed through the Kuwait National
framework of the amendment of the Turkish
Development Plan (2015-2020). The National
Constitution (2017). The Presidency of Strategy
Sustainable Development Committee provides
and Budget (PSB) under the President’s Office is
overall strategic leadership, with the collaboration
now the focal point for sustainable development.
of the General Secretariat of the Supreme Council
The Department of Environment and Sustainable
for Planning and Development; the Ministry
Development (DESD) under PSB coordinates
of Foreign Affairs; and the Central Statistical
follow-up, monitoring and reporting, supported
Bureau. A National Observatory on Sustainable
by the Turkish Statistical Institute (TurkStat).
Development and Anticipation of the Future
Different ministries ensure coordination for each
also plays a coordination role in follow-up, and
SDG.17 The 2016 VNR granted little space to local
was involved in the preparation of the VNR.
governments. For the preparatory process of the
It is expected to ensure the involvement of
2019 VNR, however, the national local government
government entities, civil society, the private
association (LGA), the Union of Municipalities of
sector and other stakeholders.14 In Oman, a
Turkey (UMT), was nominated to coordinate and
National Committee for the SDGs was created
collect information from LRGs.
under the High-Level Council on Planning, and
the SDGs were integrated in the long-term
'Oman 2040' plan and the 9th Development Plan
2016-2020.
Jordan’s Higher National Steering Committee
provides overall strategic guidance for the
implementation of the SDGs (with the broad

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 21

 2.2 Local and regional
government institutional
frameworks

As mentioned throughout this publication, the the political system but not of the governmental
countries of the MEWA region are characterized structure. In spite of the calls for more
by a high degree of centralization, with only decentralization in the country's third NDP (2001-
very few exceptions. This also applies to the 2005), decision-making for local infrastructure
various tiers of local government: provincial planning and public services has generally been
governors tend to have substantial powers top-down:22 many basic services are managed
over municipal governments, either through directly by their respective ministries, and the
the direct appointment of local authorities or authority of local governments is easily overridden
the delivery of local services, or even both in by the Ministry of Interior. Villages are in general
many cases. not granted sufficient resources or competences
Afghanistan is still a primarily rural country: only to fulfil service-related tasks, and are thus reduced
27% of its population were classified as urban in to consultative bodies.23
2015. Its structure is organized into 34 provinces, Iraq’s 2005 Constitution established a federal
399 districts, 150 municipalities and about 40,000 state system, followed by a dedicated law on local
villages (see Table 2). Tribal councils (jirgas), authorities (2008), which gave formal autonomy to
moreover, play a governance role across various the country’s 18 governorates, three of which (Erbil,
levels. Provincial governors are still appointed by Dohuk and Sulaymaniyah) subsequently associated
the central government almost in spite of existing to form the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG),
laws that already establish their electability.18 Local based on article 199 of the Constitution. The KRG
elections have generally not been held since the in fact is the only regional government that benefits
end of the Afghan wars: one in five municipal posts from a high degree of autonomy. Elections to the
is currently vacant.19 Municipalities implement governorate councils were held in 2009 and 2013,
national plans and policies. The Independent but responsibilities have yet to be fully transferred
Directorate of Local Governance (established to them, with central ministries still managing
in 2007 as a governmental entity) works as a water, electricity, and sanitation. Governorate
‘compulsory’ LGA and theoretically provides budgets rely on redistributed oil revenue through
opportunities for citizen participation through the budget allocations from the central government
establishment of Provincial Councils, Community and, in some cases, on their own petroleum
Development Councils (CDCs) and District revenues or fees. The priorities determining the
Development Assemblies. The latter two entities, allocation of resources are still set at the ministerial
both of which form part of the National Solidarity level.24 Governorate councils, 69 cities (baladiyah)
Programme (NSP) structure, assess community with more than 10,000 inhabitants and 120 districts
needs at the local level and design development (qadaa) have elected local councils, which in turn
projects accordingly.20 choose their own executives.25 The governorate
Iran is organized into 31 provinces (ostan) councils have extensive power over the lower
and 324 municipalities (shahrdarihah) — which local councils within the same governorate in the
include cities (10,000 inhabitants or more), towns, execution of local projects. The capital Baghdad
districts and villages. Provinces, cities, towns and itself is a governorate divided into administrative
villages have directly elected councils (shora). At districts and municipalities. At the same time,
the national level, a Higher Council of Provincial municipalities locally represent the Ministry of
Councils was established in 2003. Provinces are Municipalities and Public Works. Inevitably, the
headed by a governor appointed by the Ministry resettlement of internally displaced persons and
of Interior, and municipalities by a mayor elected the improvement of security are two key issues
by the local councils. The appointment of mayors facing local authorities.
is subject to the Minister of Interior’s approval.21 In a very different context, all six countries
From a legal point of view, municipalities and in the GCC are centralized monarchies and
town councils are defined as ‘non-governmental, essentially, with the exception of Saudi Arabia,
public organizations’. They are considered part of city-states. Their local councils, comprised of

22 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

both elected and appointed members, are and implementation of urban policy. Although
primarily advisory bodies. Ministries set national, local councils prepare local master plans and
regional and local urban policies, while the power monitor their implementation, ministries still have
of municipal authorities is generally restricted. the power to overrule local decisions. Similarly,
Kuwait has endowed sub-national authorities with central government transfers still account for 70%
some executive powers: the Kuwait Municipality of local expenditures.
now enjoys decision-making powers related to In Yemen, on the other hand most local
licensing, health and safety in workplaces, and the councils — perceived as being a continuation of
planning and approval of infrastructural projects. the previous regime — have been inactive since
Bahrain is divided into five governorates, each the outbreak of conflict in 2015. In the country’s
headed by a governor, in charge of development- northern territories, however, local tribes are
related economic and social regional policies.26 In de facto local bodies, and tribal councils have
2002, moreover, Bahrain held its first local elections stayed active. As of 2000, Yemen has had three
since 1957. Governorate councils are elected levels of government: the national government,
but governors are still appointed by the central governorates at the regional level, and districts
government. In October 2011, the Sultanate of at the municipal level. Their organization is
Oman announced the establishment of municipal mandated by the Local Authority Law, which came
councils (wilayah) in all of its 11 governorates. into force in 2000. However, even though the text
Until then, only the capital city of Muscat had of the law imposes the direct election of district
a council — whose members were however all and governorate councillors, these posts have
appointed. Local elections were eventually held in always been appointed by national governments.
December 2012, although only via the expression Studies show that current local government
of nominal preferences, since national law forbids regulation is contradictory or redundant, with
the establishment of political parties.27 At the at least 80 more pieces of legislation covering a
regional level, governorates are led by appointed range of different issues.31
walis (governors), who report directly to the Similarly, since 2011, Syria has experienced
Ministry of the Interior. As the Ministry of Regional one of the worst and most documented conflicts
Municipalities and Environment maintains control in the world. Traditionally, and formally at least
over municipal budget and administration, Omani since 1963, the country had adopted a strictly
municipalities enjoy very limited autonomy.28 centralized form of state. Nonetheless, and with
Qatar’s elected Central Municipal council, the particular support of the European Union (EU)
created in 1999, is purely advisory. In the UAE, a the country was able to begin the major — albeit
number of federal and local regulations have been slow — of its municipal administrative system. The
implemented in recent years. The membership of onset of the civil war and the ensuing collapse of
the Federal National Council, on the other hand, an effective political system has however led to
is half-elected, half-appointed. The first council a multiplicity of administrative systems in those
elections were held in 2006. Local administrations areas not controlled by governmental forces.
each have an executive council, which reports to Military or civilian leaders in different zones are
the Ruler’s Court of each specific Emirate. The retaining control over territorial organization, thus
capital Abu Dhabi has its own executive council, fostering — to a certain extent — the emergence
currently chaired by the Crown Prince. of more localized initiatives, also with the support
The largest country in the group, Saudi Arabia, of tribal, religious and family-clan leadership in
has a more conventional territorial organization: some areas.32
this includes 13 provinces, led by governors; The territorial organization and (re-)
municipalities report to governors for the delivery centralizing trends is quite different in the other
of local services.29 Over the last ten years, there countries of the Levant. Jordan is divided into
has been evidence of the role of local authorities 12 governorates, each headed by a muhafez
expanding somewhat.30 The country’s shift towards (governor) reporting directly to the Ministry
more de-concentration of administrative powers
includes the establishment of regional authorities
(amanat) and the enhancement of the institutional
capacity of local agencies. Elections — albeit
limited to half the membership of local councils
The countries of the MEWA region
— were held in 2005, 2011 and 2015. The local are characterized (with only very
councils have been given nominal planning and
development responsibilities and are specifically
few exceptions) by a high degree of
responsible for public health, the management centralization, including the direct
of public space, and the issuance of building
permits. However, they do not enjoy the same
appointment of local authorities and the
financial autonomy: the Ministry of Municipal centralized delivery of local services.
and Rural Affairs has dominated the formulation

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 23

 of Interior.33 Since the 2007 Municipal Act, 93 municipalities with grants and loan guarantees
local of which are elected for a mandate of four and programmes to strengthen their financial
years, with the exception of the Greater Amman management capabilities. It has channelled
Municipality, whose mayor and half the municipal significant funding from international donors for
council of which are appointed by the Cabinet. municipal infrastructure, capacity development,
Municipalities are ruled by elected officials but and other municipal activities.
still placed under the supervision of the Ministry of Turkey, a founding member of the Council of
Municipal Affairs. Since August 2015, members of Europe and an active member of its Congress
the governorate councils have also been elected, of Local and Regional Authorities, is the most
but governors remain appointed.34 Jordan’s 2015 decentralized country in the region. In 2004, the
Decentralization Law, on the other hand, sought Turkish parliament adopted a comprehensive
to create more inclusive participation. Women, decentralization reform as part of its process of
for example, are guaranteed 20% of the seats on integration with the EU. Local authorities enjoy
municipal councils.35 Citizen participation in local both financial and administrative autonomy.
governance, however, is still limited even though There are three types of local government:
the government has started to engage civil society villages, municipalities and special provincial
and solicited its input on national policy through administrations (SPAs). Following the 2014
formal dialogues, in an attempt to strengthen its Metropolitan Reform, the number of local
role as a policy-making partner. governments with greater powers fell from 2,930
In Lebanon, the Taif Agreement — which to 1,398, especially in the case of metropolitan
the Lebanese parliament approved in 1989 and municipalities.37 As of December 2014, Turkey
which marked the end of the Lebanese civil also comprises 18,362 villages as the lowest tier
war — resulted in an extensive decentralization of local administration. The new presidential form
process. The country today is divided into eight of government (following the referendum of April
administrative governorates, 26 sub-regions 2017) has not affected the local government
(Qadaa) and 1,018 municipalities. These can system. Central oversight issues remain, which
associate in Municipal Unions (there are currently can affect the clarity of the relationship between
51). New legislation enacted in 2014 has the local and central levels of governance.
decentralized urban governance even further:
accordingly, municipalities are now financially Evolution of key functions
independent, although their activities must and responsibilities of LRGs
be coordinated with the Ministry of Municipal The actual capacity to implement the SDGs
Affairs. Central transfers, on the other hand, locally is inevitably linked to the distribution of
still account for 40% of municipal revenues. An responsibilities, power and resources between
additional 14% is received as a loan from the national and local governance levels. Many
Cities and Villages Development Bank. Citizen countries of the MEWA region are disadvantaged
participation in local governance is still minimal, by a legal and administrative framework that does
despite the recent efforts by government to not seek to address the lack of transparency and
engage more with civil society. Beirut, the capital clarity in the allocation and way in which tasks and
city, has a unique system, in which the (elected) labour are distributed among central, local and
mayor retains certain policy-making powers while private actors and sectors.
sharing the executive power with an (appointed) This lack of clarity about responsibilities and
governor.36 relationships between the central government,
Palestine's geographic and administrative municipalities and other related local departments,
structure derives from its particular history has generally resulted in institutional competition
and status. Is the consequence of its particular and duplication. In Lebanon, for example, the
history and status. It is divided into two main Municipal Law devolves planning competences
geographical units: the West Bank and the Gaza to municipalities, meanwhile the Urban Planning
Strip. This spatial configuration has led to a relative Code gives municipalities only a consultative role
autonomy in terms of municipal authority, also in the implementation of plans, and the national
considering the impact of territorial fragmentation Directorate-General for Urban Planning prepares
as caused by the Israeli occupation. Today urban or reviews all urban master plans.38 Moreover,
governance is largely decentralized and elected while the 1977 municipal reform (Law 118) gives
local authorities are responsible for planning, municipalities a broad range of tasks, nearly 70%
managing growth within their boundaries, (e.g. of the country’s 1,108 municipalities are small
water, power) and granting of building permits. In towns with limited capacity structurally to ensure
2005 and 2006, there was a rise of agglomeration basic service provision.39 Thus, most functions
into joint councils for shared service provision related to urban development and infrastructure
and development planning. At the national project implementation are supervised by a district
level, the Municipal Development and Lending commissioner (qa’im maqam). Pooling resources
Fund (MDLF), established in 2005, provides and enhancing decisional and implementation

24 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

 Table 2 Local and regional governments (LRGs) by tier

Country System Number of LRGs

34 Provinces (wilayet)
399 Districts
Afghanistan Presidential Islamic Republic
153 Municipalities
Roughly 40,020 Villages

Bahrain Constitutional Hereditary Monarchy 5 Governorates (muhafazat)

31 Provinces (ostan)
Iran Islamic Republic
324 Cities (shehristan)

Iraq Parliamentary Republic 18 Governorates (muhafazat)

Constitutional Monarchy 12 Governorates

Jordan
with Representative Government 100 Municipalities

Kuwait Constitutional Emirate 6 Governorates

8 Governorates (muhafazat)
Lebanon Parliamentary Democratic Republic 25 Districts (qadaa, qaza)
1,108 Municipalities (baladiyya)

Oman Absolute Monarchy 11 Governorates

Qatar Constitutional Hereditary Emirate 8 Municipalities (baladiyya)

13 Provinces
Saudi Arabia Unitary Absolute Monarchy Latin
60 Centres America
(markaz) for each province
and the Caribbean
43 Secondary Governorates (muhafazat) for each province

State of Palestine National Authority 187 Municipalities

Syrian Arab Republic Semi-Presidential Republic 14 Provinces

1,398 Municipalities
Turkey Presidential System 51 Provincial Administrations
18,362 Village Administrations

Constitutional Federation of
UAE 7 Emirates
7 Emirates

22 Governorates
333 Districts
Yemen Multi-party Parliamentary System
2,210 Municipalities
38,234 Villages

Source: UCLG MEWA Report on Country Sheets, 2018.

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 25

 capacity are incentives for many small Lebanese poorest groups of the population and/or those
municipalities to establish municipal unions, as affected by the conflict.
already mentioned. The status of competence allocation and
Recentralizing trends have hindered devolution in West Asia is more varied. The
competence devolution in Jordan over the past Afghan Government introduced a Sub-National
few years. Even though the current regulations Government Policy (LRGSP) in 2010, which
of the Municipal Act do assign a diverse range aims to devolve certain central powers to local
of competences to the local level, the central authorities. This document includes roles and
government has tended to either centralize or responsibilities of Afghan local governments in
even privatize municipal competences such various fields, such as justice, security, roads,
as water and electricity provision, school and water, sanitation, natural resources management,
health systems. Joint Service Councils have been infrastructure, agriculture, education and
established from the top down by the Ministry of energy, among others.40 The Ministry of Urban
Interior to coordinate service provision in clusters Development, however, has planning oversight
of municipalities and villages — with the aim of of local administrations’ decision-making.
achieving economy of scale and making certain In Iran, on the other hand, municipalities
services (and waste management in particular) enjoy both direct responsibilities and shared
more efficient — such as in the Petra region responsibilities with higher levels of governance.
or special economic zones (SEZs) like Aqaba. Locally however, municipal offices and mayors
The gubernatorial level maintains coordination have a limited or no role in the provision of many
among local governments, and has the power to basic services. In the case of urban planning,
intervene in municipal affairs and decisions. for example, municipalities are generally
The territorial and administrative fragmentation tasked with the development and follow-up of
of the State of Palestine described above is evident projects that are usually defined and designed
in the inconsistent distribution of competences directly by the Ministry of Housing and Urban
and powers to local authorities across the state’s Development. Finally, in Iraq, district (qadaa)
territory. Following the Oslo Accords of 1993 and and sub-district (nahiya) councils have taken on
1995, the Palestinian territory in the West Bank several responsibilities of public service delivery
was ultimately divided into three Areas: A, B and to respond to local needs and interests, but
C. Area C territory is de facto under Israeli control, most services remain under central government
not only in terms of its political administration and control. Following the country’s structural political
security, but even as far as urban and territorial reform, governorates now manage and deliver
zoning and planning are concerned. It accounts most of the competences related to the urban
for about 60% of the whole of the West Bank. system. Accordingly, overlapping of authority
Nonetheless, the Local Authorities Law of the State and responsibility is still a fundamental problem
of Palestine identifies a wide range of tasks that are in the relationship between federal and local
the responsibility of the Association of Palestinian governments, as well as a hindrance in terms of
Local Authorities (APLA). Some municipalities have transparency and resource allocation.
even taken on additional tasks, such as providing The centralized nature of task and competence
emergency services and the construction and distribution in the Gulf countries has led to a
maintenance of schools. Between 2005 and 2006, relatively unusual picture in the sub-region. Emirati
several joint councils were created to guarantee municipalities are in charge of daily urban service
more effective service provision and development management but only as part of an ever-tighter
planning. However, due to the limited capacities distribution of competences within the federal
of most local governments in the area, CSOs system, which remains largely in the hands of
have played an important role in providing health, each Emirate’s government. In Oman, municipal
education and relief services, especially to the councils have no specific competence other than
providing recommendations for the delivery of
urban services. Over the last few decades, several
municipal responsibilities in Kuwait have in fact
been re-centralized, although municipal councils
are still responsible for certain services — including
The lack of clarity about relationships roads, urban planning, sanitation, garbage
between the central government, disposal, food safety, licensing, environmental
protection, and housing.41 Yemeni municipalities
municipalities and other related local have traditionally had little leeway when it comes
departments has generally resulted to local powers and responsibilities. A process of

in institutional competition and decentralization began in 2001 with the entry into
force of a law on local authorities, which devolved
duplication. most administrative tasks and competences to
the local level. An amendment to the law was a

26 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

step forward also in terms of the democratization spending capacity of their local governments.
of the appointment and accountability of local Countries such as Iran, Iraq, Jordan and Lebanon
representatives. However, in 2011, the President's are lagging behind while Gulf countries are as a
Office overturned most of these arrangements, rule so centralized that sub-national finance still
returning the lion’s share of policy control from depends largely on national decision-making.
the local level to central government.42 Finally, In most MEWA countries however, the current
with the onset of the civil war in 2014 and the institutional framework means local governments
Saudi-led invasion of 2015, Yemeni municipalities are not sufficiently invested with their own
found themselves in the unprecedented position revenues (either through taxes, fees or charges)
of abandoning most local policy-making and and thus are unable to autonomously fund their
focusing primarily on guaranteeing the supply of own spending. Increasing urbanization, on the one
food and medicine to their communities. hand, has put even more financial pressure on local
In Turkey, on the other hand, municipal governments. Meanwhile obsolete institutional
competences include an extensive range of tasks and regulatory frameworks, on the other, have
and responsibilities, with the exception of several made it even harder for them to recover their
basic national competences such as border fair share of public services’ operating costs or
security, justice and compulsory education. The offset the impact of rising property value in urban
Turkish system, however, still has certain overlaps contexts. This has ultimately most benefitted the
in labour distribution between local governments private sector. Moreover, and generally across the
and sectoral ministries. There have also been entire MEWA region, an inadequate regulatory
some instances of central government devolving framework has limited local governments’ access
competences to local authorities, who have in to alternative sources of funding and finance.
turn rejected this due to bureaucratic difficulties Most MEWA local governments cannot legally
in managing these tasks. Municipalities larger issue municipal bonds, or implement land-value
than 50,000 inhabitants, for example, have a capture models, Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs),
legal obligation to provide sheltered housing value-based zoning mechanisms, and many other
for women and children. However, even after financial options. Making these accessible at the
building the infrastructure (and thus complying local level would require another step forward in
with the law), due to their limited capacity and financial decentralization.
the process’s complexity, many municipalities are Similarly, local taxes and fees have so far
transferring the management and maintenance of played a minor part in the financing of local
shelters back to the Ministry of Family and Social governance, systematically hindered by inefficient
Affairs. Similarly, in an attempt to rationalize collection mechanisms. Very few countries in
their tasks, many municipalities have resorted to the MEWA region really enjoy any degree of
creating municipal unions, entities supported by autonomy in the management of their own local
specific national legislation: 789 such unions exist, revenues. Although municipalities in Iran, Jordan,
sharing competences in a diverse range of fields, Turkey and Palestine are in fact able to generate
from geothermal energy production to health and income through property taxes, their share of
tourism.43 local revenues (with the exception of Turkey) is still
Finally, urban legislation and regulations may limited.44 On the other hand, real-estate tax rates
have a very important role to play in preparing in Turkey, for example, are still set centrally by
MEWA countries for the introduction of the SDGs the Council of Ministers, with no engagement of
and the New Urban Agenda in an otherwise slowly municipalities. There are some positive examples,
evolving system. However, most urban planning however: the city of Sanlıurfa, for example,
and management laws, rules and regulations doubled its tax revenue in one year by monitoring
remain obsolete and have not been able to collection with improved IT systems.45
respond adequately to the needs (and challenges) Although municipal revenues in Iran increased
of local governments willing to take on this task. eight-fold during the period 2006-2013, these
came mostly from land sales and building permits.
Local and regional Meanwhile, over the past 45 years, the share of
governments' finance own revenue in the income of Tehran Municipality
Inadequate access, delivery and provision of fell from about 40% to 20%.46 Iranian cities have
basic services and infrastructure have obstructed accordingly faced significant financial constraints
the achievement of the SDGs and their targets in their ability to support the implementation of
in the MEWA region. A thorough revision of the SDGs.47 Similarly, in Iraq, even though Iraqi
financial resources and their allocation across governorates were granted the right to levy taxes,
levels of governance is essential to overcome this a judicial action has suspended this prerogative,
challenge. There are many obstacles in the way of leaving them highly dependent on central
LRGs’ finance systems across the region. Generally transfers. The system of tax collection, moreover,
in the MEWA region, Turkey and Palestine are is strongly centralized. Specifically, in the case of
probably the most decentralized in terms of the the Iraqi economy, the Ministry of Finance has

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 27

 been trying to retain control of the local budget, to compensate for expenditure on salaries and
which has been spent entirely on reconstruction. local infrastructure maintenance (e.g. transport,
The current situation is even starker in the Gulf roads and waste management). In the State of
countries, where municipalities have basically Palestine, on the other hand, local governments
behaved as implementing agencies for national have maintained a certain degree of control over
urban policies (NUPs). With few exceptions, local both the tax rate and the tax base. Inevitably,
governments in the Gulf have no direct taxing however, the current military occupation, the
or borrowing powers and are dependent on territorial fragmentation and the lack of actual
central transfers for funding infrastructure and control over border security and functioning have
public service provision. Inevitably, any initiative vastly affected the ability of local governments
to implement the SDGs needs to be centralized, to collect a stable amount of own revenue, and
top-down, and an integral part of NDSs. In they have relied extensively on foreign aid.52 At
Bahrain, for example, the budget allocated to the national level, the MDLF, established in 2005,
governorates is agreed at the central level and provides municipalities with grants and loan
managed as part of the overall budget of the guarantees, as well as programmes to strengthen
Ministry of Interior.48 In many Gulf countries, their financial management capabilities. In Turkey,
moreover, the wealth engendered by oil and finally, local taxes and fees represent around 30%
hydrocarbons has allowed national governments of local revenues.53
to single-handedly adopt a specific model With regard to the remaining components of
of urban planning and development, based local budgets, local governments in most MEWA
mostly on ambitious megaprojects that rival — countries ultimately depend to a high degree on
though more in appearance than function — the transfers from central governments: 70% of local
stereotypical image of the Western metropolis. revenue in Turkey come via grants, about 40%
This model of top-down urban development in Jordan. Palestine and Afghanistan are the
leaves the city, to a certain extent, devoid of its only exceptions: in the former, the mechanism of
own main primary functions. In Saudi Arabia, for grant and transfer has been inefficient due to the
example, business licence and advertising fees systemic issue in the organization of the country; in
and building permits are the only real source of the latter, centre-to-local transfers have not been
income for local governments, while just a handful established, and structurally, local governments
of cities — Riyadh, Jeddah, and the holy cities of do not have their own financial sources.54 The
Makkah and Madinah — are granted the capacity centrality of transfers for the sustainability of local
to manage local finance and maintain a local finance also highlights the importance of the
budget. Some cities, however, are seeking revenue criteria according to which national governments
from municipal land property to raise additional allocate resources via grants — as well as any
financial resources, and have been experimenting flexibility that LRGs have to use these funds.
with PPPs to attract private investment. In an Several countries have traditionally adopted pre-
apparent acknowledgement of the urgency of this set allocation formulas: Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon
issue, Saudi Arabia’s national Saudi Vision 2030 and Turkey. The other governments in the region,
now specifically addresses municipal finance.49 however, define these criteria via centrally — led
In Lebanon, local governments cannot create national negotiations in which LRGs are generally
additional taxes nor can they make changes to the not included.55 In Iran, on the other hand, where
tax base since they only have limited control of transfers are allocated on a yearly basis, 60% of
fee levels. While they collect up to 36 different development transfers are earmarked for specific
kinds of fees, the cost of the collection process projects, and only 40% are left discretionary
has been higher than the income obtained (direct for the recipient.56 In Iraq, central transfers
fees represent around 40% of local revenues).50 are still essential for the sustainability of local
In Jordan, revenues raised by municipalities government. They are allocated, however, in a
represent 43% of total local revenues. highly unbalanced way: the four governorates
Municipalities have some control of some fees (e.g. included in the Kurdistan Regional Government
waste collection, building permits), and property (KRG) — due to the particular status of this
tax.51 Most Jordanian municipalities, however, union as the country’s only autonomous region
face budget deficits, mostly due to the inability — receive about 17% of the national budget via
grants; the remaining 15 governorates combined
only receive about 5%.
Clearer allocation criteria and formulas are
not necessarily conducive to more effective
There are many obstacles in the way of local finance. In most cases, metropolitan areas
have been benefitting more than intermediary
local and regional governments' finance cities or smaller towns from intergovernmental
systems across the region. transfers. More specifically, because of the
extreme conditions imposed by the Syrian

28 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

conflict on the whole region, transfer schemes producing countries in the region. Loans from
and criteria have failed to take into consideration international institutions require sovereign
the sudden and dramatic change brought about guarantees and carry foreign-exchange risks.
by the refugee crisis. In Turkey, for example, a Moreover, borrowing from multilateral banks or
large city such as Gaziantep — on the Turkish- international financial markets is often hindered
Syrian border, hosting over 400,000 refugees by the lack of quality data and transparency in the
with a local population of about 1.5 million financial system, which increases credit risks to an
— receives transfer allocations about 14 times unsustainable level. In most MEWA countries, the
lower than Kocaeli, on the Marmara Sea, with a existing legislation does not allow for the issuance
similar population but a much lower impact of of municipal bonds and attempts to instate this
refugee fluxes.57 At a much lower scale, but with have been sporadic. In Turkey, the city of Antalya
similar dynamics, transfer schemes also penalize did plan a municipal bond initiative, but this was
affected territories and communities — one way frustrated by the bureaucratic requirements of
or another — by growing commuter flows among the process. On the other hand, Iran’s experience
cities. Lebanese municipalities have met with the has been relatively positive, in this regard: both
same set of challenges, as they have come to host Tehran and Tabriz have implemented municipal
over 1.4 million Syrian refugees.58 The country’s bond initiatives successfully.59
Independent Municipal Fund, a governmental Lack of financial autonomy, transparency and
agency in charge of fund allocation, has often alternative options have curbed the capacity of
been criticized for unpredictable transfers and MEWA LRGs to fund themselves, their activities
inadequate criteria, hindering territorial equality. and — inevitably — also their mobilization for
Consequently, municipalities across the MEWA the SDGs. In fact, the extensive reliance on
region have tried to find alternative sources of short-term funds has led to a general financial
financial support. The simplest option for most weakness, and many national governments in the
local governments is borrowing from domestic region have used this to leverage more municipal
banks or special purpose funds. Jordanian amalgamation. In Jordan alone, over 300
cities, for example, have made up 14% of their municipalities were joined into 93 municipalities.60
budgets through loans from the Cities and In 2014, Turkey amalgamated 2,950 municipalities
Villages Development Bank (CVDB). Longer-term into 1,398.
financing is more difficult to obtain in non-oil

Women walking with kids,

Syria (photo: Charles Roffey,
bit.ly/2MsZR6v).

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 29

 2.3. Multilevel governance
mechanisms and trends for
stakeholder involvement

The historical legacy of centralized adminis- Although many countries in the region have
tration has remained solidly embedded in the established a separate ministry addressing
political system of the MEWA countries. It still local government matters, concrete impact and
influences city management and the mechanisms change have been negligible. In Iran, the Office
of urban and territorial governance. Across the of Councils and Social Affairs within the Ministry of
region, the predominance of centralizing models Interior oversees all municipal councils. Although
and initiatives has paved the way to territorial mayors are elected by the councils, they are still
coordination via hierarchical processes rather vastly dependent on the Department of Municipal
than co-ownership, negotiation or inclusive Affairs within the ministry. Line ministries are
consultation. in charge of local services and policies in their
Inevitably, this has also affected the role respective fields, a mechanism that has frequently
and effectiveness of national LGAs, making led to a lack of coordination among decision-
representation of local governments in national makers formalized, to a certain extent, within
decision-making even weaker. An important often contradictory regulations. This trend has
exception is Turkey, where the UMT, established impeded the establishment of a consistent local
in 1945, has a consultative role in the drafting government model or system across the region.
of legislation and holds one seat in the In Iraq, for example, governorate councils
Presidential Local Government Commission. In have extensive power over lower local councils
Lebanon, a Committee of Mayors, gathering the in the implementation of local projects: at the
representatives of the country’s major cities, has administrative level, more generally, mayors need
been active since 1995. the approval of governors for any activities within
Phosphate train on its way to
Aqaba, Jordan (photo: rikdom,
bit.ly/2B1ASli).

30 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

the municipal jurisdiction. In Jordan, the Ministry
of Interior is the main authority in charge of local
governments’ functioning and activity, even though
Lack of coordination among decision-
municipalities are formally under the control of the makers has impeded the establishment
Ministry of Municipal Affairs. After the adoption
of the country’s Decentralization Law (2015), the
of a consistent local government model
central government created in 2016 eight different or system across the MEWA region.
ministerial committees and one central committee
to assist local policy implementation. The role
of the Ministry of Municipal Affairs — within the
framework of the decentralization process — in most cases without any information available
is expected to be reduced, focusing more on about the councillors they are supporting.
consultation and capacity-building, instead of on A remarkable challenge for the MEWA region,
strict policy supervision.61 but also an area in which (modest) progress has
In Lebanon, the Ministry of Interior and been achieved, is women’s participation in sub-
Municipalities is in charge of local administration national politics. Saudi Arabia granted female
and exerts administrative supervision over citizens the right to participate in local politics
municipal councils — including financial control in 2015: since then, 21 women candidates have
— through Governors (Muhafizes). They can won seats in Saudi municipal councils.63 In 2018,
suspend municipal decisions for three months. Bahrain’s monarchy appointed two Bahraini
The Ministry is also responsible for planning, women as director-generals of the Capital and
budgeting and expenditure of municipal revenue. Northern Municipalities. In Iran, a campaign to
The Palestinian Ministry of Local Government is increase the number of woman-held seats in local
in charge of the oversight of local authorities. The legislatures led to the election of 415 women
central government has been attempting to pool to city councils across the province of Sistan-
municipal services via intercommunal entities — Balochistan in the 2017 elections, up from 185 in
the Joint Services Councils (JSCs) — to overcome the previous election. In Iraq’s second election for
the practical difficulties many local administrations governorate councils in 2013, 117 women were
meet in the delivery of basic services. In Turkey, elected to a total of 440 seats, seven more than in
a new General Directorate of Local Government the 2009 elections.64
was established in 2017 under the Ministry of Ultimately, because of its history and
Urbanization and Environment. traditional institutional setting, the MEWA region
Finally, in the MEWA region most legal as a whole presents significant challenges for the
frameworks for citizen mobilization have been implementation and achievement of the SDGs,
historically weak, and participatory channels have and in particular for the active participation of
been either inadequate or non-existent. While LRGs in the process. The region is characterized
mayors can play a pivotal role in creating a culture by widening disparities in development levels
of participation in their cities, their actions seldom and enduring armed conflict, making it even
go beyond formal policy practices. Participation, harder for poorer and war-torn countries, such
however, varies across the region. In Afghanistan, as Yemen or Afghanistan, to conceptualize — let
the sub-national governance framework adopted alone implement and achieve — the SDG targets
in 2010 acknowledges citizens' right to participate locally. Despite its heterogeneity, the MEWA
in decision-making, yet in practice most decisions region still has a common trend that emerges
are still based on informal political ties. In Iran, the across all countries, which is that it has historically
level of public participation in municipal decisions rewarded strong political centralization: this
is very low, and official mobilization channels is limiting authority, autonomy and capacity
are limited to the election of local councillors. In (including but not limited to financial resources)
Lebanon, public participation in urban planning of LRGs in all MEWA countries. Accordingly, their
and development remains marginal, but has ability to advance in policy-making and either
been improving: in 2016, a platform set up by adapt to or introduce the SDGs in their activities
NGOs under the slogan of ‘Beirut My City’ won is severely limited. This notwithstanding, it is
37% of the votes in the capital. The winner- important to emphasize that many LRGs in the
take-all electoral system left the movement with MEWA region have sought ways to introduce
no representation in the city council, but it won and localize the SDGs in their territories and
international acclaim.62 In Jordan, the central communities — often in opposition to the
government is currently working on a new constraints imposed by their national systems.
framework to enable citizens to define and share The following section explores and analyses
their preferred projects. In Turkey, municipal these efforts in more detail.
elections are still the main institutional channel of
participation: citizens vote for their mayor and for
candidate lists linked to political parties, however

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 31

 03. The contribution
of local and regional
governments to the
localization of the SDGs

32 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

3.1 Promoting local
ownership to localize
the SDGs

There is plenty of evidence from around the included in the community of partners invited to
world of the importance of local governments all the national events related to either the SDGs
and their national associations in the successful or the Turkish government’s VNR for the United
localization of the SDGs. While the SDGs as a Nations. Since 2017, the UMT has taken on the
framework are inherently intergovernmental, task of circulating information and knowledge
and their realization is tied to national policies, about the SDG framework to all Turkey’s mayors
budget and political will, the achievement of and municipalities.
most Goals still depends extensively on the The Mersin Metropolitan Municipality and
cooperation, commitment and participation the municipalities of Nilufer (Izmir province),
of local and regional authorities. SDG 11 Nevşehir and Bakırköy (a municipality in the
on ‘inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable’ larger conglomeration of Istanbul) have organized
cities and human settlements, for example, several SDG-related workshops. Seferihisar, in the
acknowledges the transformative power of Izmir province, created a webpage for reporting
sustainable urbanization and the impact that practices and examples of local implementation.
local governments can have on driving (global) The municipalities (and Istanbul districts) of
change from the bottom up. Bakırköy, Esenler and Maltepe have already
The implementation of a complex and developed their own local reports on the SDGs.
comprehensive Goal such as SDG 11 requires The Regional Municipal Union of Marmara
not only improvements in the delivery of basic has organized workshops and seminars on the
services (health, education, water and food SDGs for its member municipalities. Several
security, energy, among others), but also access NGOs have also been active in monitoring and
to inclusive economic opportunities and the promoting municipal activities in support of
protection of women, youth, minorities and SDG implementation: the Yereliz (‘We are local’)
other vulnerable groups. While the resources Association created an online reporting system
for this would in most countries be allocated by that maps local government efforts in support
national governments, the design and successful of SDG targets and their achievement. The
implementation of specific programmes are a Maya Sustainable Development Agency has
local responsibility and require true cross-level co- organized local workshops and conferences to
ownership, participation and mobilization of local raise awareness among local stakeholders and
communities, actors and stakeholders. communities.
Not surprisingly, considering the region’s The national government — via the Presidential
traditionally centralized political and administrative Directorate in charge of the realization of Turkey’s
structures, local governments have only rarely — VNR for the 2019 HLPF — has shown an increasing
and only in a few countries of the region — actively willingness to engage the local level. The UMT
participated in the process of implementing the was selected as the coordinating institution for
SDGs, as well as in the preparation of the VNRs. local administrations contributing to the reporting
This can partly be explained by the still limited process and bringing to the table the experiences
development and presence of LGAs and networks of LRGs in the country. The UMT directly engaged
across the region: the job of intermediating with 50 municipalities in the process, while reaching
across governance tiers and representing the out to over 1,400 municipalities for them to
shared interests of local authorities performed
by associations and networks can be a valuable
enabler for local governments to gain visibility and
centrality in SDG-related decision-making. Turkey,
The implementation of the SDGs
Lebanon and Palestine are essentially the only requires improvements in the delivery
MEWA countries with a developed, established
network of local government associations and
of basic services and the protection of
organizations. Turkish local governments have vulnerable groups.
come together in the UMT, which has to date been

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 33

 contribute to the document’s recommendations.65 the region. UCLG-MEWA plans to disseminate the
The UMT attended the 2019 HLPF in New York results and outcomes of the project throughout
along with the national government delegation. the region to incentivize mutual learning and
In Lebanon and Palestine, national municipal collaboration.
associations have evolved to a certain degree. In Jordan, the United Nations Development
In Lebanon, the Bureau Technique des Villes Programme (UNDP) has supported a dedicated
Libanaises (BTVL, Technical Office of Lebanese 'roadmap for the implementation of the SDGs
Cities), also known as Cités Unies Liban (United with a 2030 time-horizon' to reinforce SDG-
Cities Lebanon), has a membership of 66 related initiatives in planning at the national
municipalities and 22 federations of municipalities, and sub-national levels: this includes awareness-
comprising 80% of the country’s population. The raising, mapping, mainstreaming and financing
country’s largest municipalities collaborate under development initiatives. Jordan’s VNR —
the aegis of BTVL. However, when the national submitted in 2017 — stressed the participation
government prepared its VNR for the 2018 HLPF, of both elected municipal councils and appointed
the municipalities of the BTVL were informed governorate councils to the reviewing process.
but not invited to contribute to the process.66 Development-related priorities for the country’s
When the State of Palestine presented its 2018 12 governorates, however, are still centralized
VNR, the national LGA was neither informed through the Governorate Development
nor involved in the process. The Association of Programmes: while these are ‘expected’ to be
Palestinian Local Authorities (APLA), however, fully aligned with the SDGs, there is no significant
has been particularly active in the territory. It evidence of actual implementation or integration
has established the Palestinian City Managers of the Goals in the initiatives undertaken at the
Network (PCMN), which involves higher-level local level.
administrators responsible for running the day- UN-Habitat has also been very active in
to-day operations of Palestinian municipalities,67 Afghanistan, sponsoring several programmes in
and has historically been proactive in global partnership with the national government and
networks of local authorities and in the effort of sub-national authorities. Even if designed outside
granting their members increasing visibility on the the SDG framework, many of the 30 projects,
international stage. active on the ground since 2008, have a strong
In Iraq, UN-Habitat has monitored and impact on the achievement of core SDG targets
supported the process of establishing a national and development indicators in Afghan territories
LGA to improve information and experience and communities. UNDP, as mentioned above,
exchange among municipalities, channelling their has also been a key player for SDG localization
concerns and priorities to reach regional and in the region. In Bahrain, UNDP — in partnership
central governments. Although the Iraqi national with other UN agencies such as the United Nations
LGA has been active in conferences and specific Environment Programme (UNEP) and United
projects, it is still in its infancy institutionally and Nations Volunteers (UNV) — has aimed to engage
politically. Using a similar process, the World Bank young Bahrainis in the Capital Governorate
has assisted in the creation of the Independent to issue ‘Volunteering Passports’ in the SDG
Directorate of Local Authorities in Afghanistan. framework to increase awareness at the local
Besides these efforts, several municipalities in level.69 In Saudi Arabia, a national-level UNDP-led
the region have also actively sought to participate project included a pillar dedicated to localization.
in international initiatives, particularly on issues Through UNDP support, moreover, the Riyadh
of climate change, sustainability and resilience. Urban Observatory has engaged in discussion
Many cities in the MEWA region are part of the with local actors to promote the integration
Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate and of the SDGs and their related indicators in the
Energy.68 UCLG has maintained an active presence Observatory’s toolkit for monitoring and reporting
in the region through the Istanbul-based regional on implementation in the city of Riyadh.
headquarters of UCLG-MEWA: in the past year, it In Palestine, UNDP has organized awareness-
has developed several dissemination initiatives in raising workshops with the participation of sectoral,
the region about the SDGs, aimed at training local national and local-level representatives. In Syria,
governments and their officials on the process of the agency has also been assisting governorates
localization through workshops and conferences. in the preparation of their voluntary reviews. In
In 2018 and 2019, UCLG-MEWA completed a Iraq, with the support of the national government,
pilot project to map SDG implementation which UNDP has set up a project to integrate the SDGs
was initially launched in Turkey — with the at the governorate level. Governorate Sustainable
financial sponsorship and partnership of the World Development Committees (GSDCs) have been
Academy for Local Government and Democracy established to support implementation of NDPs
(WALD). UCLG-MEWA planned to use the project (which are already aligned with the SDGs) and
to integrate SDG-related municipal activities as monitor progress in implementation at the
widely as possible in the VNRs of the countries in provincial level.70

34 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

3.2 Local initiatives in line
with the 2030 Agenda

Despite MEWA LRGs’ historical reliance on the integrated transit and transport in major cities;
support of national governments, evidence of and curb sub-standard housing supply. Saudi
innovative or ‘game-changing’ progress in the Arabia, faced with increasing urbanization rates,
region’s countries is scarce. There is only limited launched its National Spatial Strategy 2030 and
information available about new programmes Future Saudi Cities Programme (in partnership
that are catalysed by the SDGs or any other with UN-Habitat) to tackle urban sprawl
global agendas, and new lines of funding or reduction; promote spatially balanced planning Over 400 Turkish, Syrian,
support to local initiatives. There are, however, and development; improve public transportation Afghani and Iraqi women
from the SADA Women's
significant examples in Turkey, where several in and between major cities; promote national Empowerment and Solidarity
projects — mostly related to SDGs 3, 6, 10 investment towards less-developed regions; Center in Gaziantep celebrate
International Women’s Day
and 11 — have clearly been beneficial to SDG and empower middle and small-sized cities and along Turkey’s border with
Syria, March 8th, 2019 (photo:
localization and increased policy consistency UN Women Europe and
between central and local levels.71 Central Asia, bit.ly/2AVOrTz).

In other countries, certain governmental

priorities have been consistent with some of the
main objectives of the SDGs, and some of the
policies that national governments and other
tiers of governance have been able to develop
are to an extent aligned with these agendas.
Informal settlements, access to essential services
and urban management challenges — all core
elements of the commitments behind the SDGs
— have been more and more central for national
and local policy arenas across the MEWA region.

Urban development
The SDG closest to the reality and actual
commitments and expectations of cities and local
governments is SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and
Communities. Most of the advances, initiatives
and strategic alignment of local governments
within the framework of the SDGs have an impact
on the implementation of SDG 11, even when
there is no explicit reference to the Goals.
Over the past few years, several countries in
the region have put in place urban development
strategies as a tool to help address their main
urban and territorial challenges, although the
content and objectives of these have been
diverse. Turkey, for example, is implementing
an Integrated Urban Development Strategy
and Action Plan, with different sub-programmes
designed to manage urban growth and sprawl;
prevent disaster risk; promote urban regeneration
and reduce regional disparities; develop

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 35

 settlements as regional growth hubs.72 A major Informal settlements
challenge will be the devolution of greater and social inclusion
responsibilities to local governments. Although Following trends of growing inequality and the
they currently prepare local master plans and displacement of refugees escaping conflict in
monitor their implementation, the autonomy several areas of the MEWA region, many urban
of local governments is limited as higher- areas have experienced massive population influx,
level officials have the power to overrule local urban growth and major imbalances contributing
decisions. Moreover, central government transfers to fast growth of informal settlements. Lebanon’s
still account for 70% of local expenditures due to dynamics of urban growth, exacerbated by an
LRGs' low efficiency in revenue collection at the extremely high number of refugees, have led to
local level and the traditional provision of many the sprawl of larger cities. In 2015, 1.8 million
public services free of charge.73 people — 53.1% of the urban population — were
In Afghanistan, one of the least urbanized living in informal settlements and urban slums.75
countries of the region, the Ministry of Urban In response to the inflow of Syrian refugees
Development Affairs, the Independent Directorate that began in 2011, Lebanon’s municipalities
of Local Governance, and the Municipality of expanded their services, and schools opened
Kabul, in partnership with UN-Habitat, launched their doors to refugee children, which resulted in
in 2014 (before the SDGs were established) the a doubling in enrolments and the empowerment
nationwide Future of Afghan Cities Programme of local governments to operate and maintain the
(FoAC). After a successful database and reporting educational system.76 Iran's informal settlements
phase, which led to the publication of the State today host about one third of the country's urban
of Afghan Cities report in 2015, the programme population.77 The municipalities of Tehran and
moved to a second stage. In 2016, the partnership Isfahan have established specialized agencies that
produced an atlas and a dataset of Afghan cities have been working with the Urban Development
and regions.74 Similarly, the Afghan Citizens’ and Revitalization Organization (UDRO) on
Charter project — in partnership with the World informal settlements and neighbourhood
Bank and several local authorities — promotes the upgrading and renovation.78 Afghanistan’s
improvement of service and infrastructure delivery Community-Led Urban Infrastructure Programme
through the engagement of local communities seeks to secure and stabilize urban areas through
by means of Community Development Councils. community empowerment and the improvement
Qatar’s Ministry of Municipality and Environment, of living conditions. In Iraq, the Funding Facility
meanwhile, has developed a Sustainable Strategy for Stabilization (FFS), in partnership with UNDP,
2018-2022 and plans to provide the country’s the national government, and the governorates,
cities with support for food security, environmental has focused on rebuilding and renovating urban
protection, waste management and recycling. infrastructure.79
Another dimension of specific provisions of
SDG 11.4 — cultural legacy and preservation — has Basic services
been a controversial issue in planning and spatial Inevitably, due to the climatic and geographic
policies in many countries of the MEWA region. conditions of the region, issues of sustainable
Either because areas were war-torn or because of water consumption and provision and
the structural indifference of political authorities, management of wastewaters have been crucial
many Middle Eastern municipalities have for national and local governments across the
experienced the destruction and abandonment of MEWA region, and especially in the desert
historical heritage and millennia-old settlements. areas in the Arabian Peninsula and the Gulf.
Mosul, in Iraq, has already accessed financial Desalinated water currently provides for over
assistance from the central government to rebuild two-thirds of potable water used in Bahrain,
the old city. The Turkish municipality of Altindag Kuwait, Qatar and the UAE, and 61% in Saudi
(a district of Ankara’s metro area) has renovated Arabia. Water recycling, sanitation and waste
the once abandoned historical centre of Ankara, management technologies have become
refurbishing it into a cultural hub for the city. essential alternative sources of water to meet
a skyrocketing demand in the region’s urban
areas.80 Almost all urban settlements in almost
all countries of the region have some degree of
Many MEWA urban areas have water recycling and wastewater treatment system
in place. In Turkey, for example, the number
experienced massive population influx, of municipalities with domestic wastewater
urban growth and major imbalances treatment facilities increased from 126 in 2002 to

contributing to the fast growth of 881 in 2018 and the rate of use of these services
by the municipal population rose from 35% to
informal settlements. 75%. Within the same period, the percentage
of the population using safely managed drinking

36 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

water increased from 95% to 99%. Following new Turkish cities have developed public rail system
legislation, municipalities will reduce water loss projects (subway, light rail systems, trams) or
rates averaged 25% in 2023.81 created bicycle lanes (e.g. Istanbul, Izmir, Kocaeli,
Waste management has also traditionally Kayseri and Konya). Istanbul has been able to
posed a challenge to local governance in the expand its public transport network, growing the
region. The Greater Beirut area’s main landfill site underground network and infrastructure, while
was closed in 2015: since then the municipality imposing some restrictions on private motorized
has struggled to remedy this situation because transport. In Izmir, a solar power station was
of both inadequate financial resources and a established on 10,000 m2 of roofs by the local
centralized approach that has historically limited transport authority ESHOT General Directorate.
the ability of local government and stakeholders This station aims to meet the energy needs of
to address these issues.82 The GCC countries, 20 ESHOT buses, fully powered by electricity.84
thanks to their substantially different national Malatya, also in Turkey, already uses electric
economies have been able to establish highly bus vehicles with routes that allow for battery
efficient landfill systems. Larger cities such as recharging. Qazvin, in Iran, signed a deal in 2018
Doha, in Qatar, have even invested in food with a Chinese company to build the country’s first
and organic waste treatment for the production tram network. Riyadh, the capital of Saudi Arabia,
of compost and chemical products. In Oman, has allocated an investment of USD 16 billion to
uniquely for the region, solid waste landfills are fund an underground system extending 178 km.
managed jointly by the general government and At the same time, Qatar and some of the UAE
certain municipalities, including Muscat, the (including Abu Dhabi, the country's largest state
capital city, and Salalah. In Turkey, within the have been developing green building ratings
framework of the National Waste Management and certifications, in order to integrate the latest
Plan, the number of municipal landfills has environmental construction standard in their
increased to 88, which provide services to 62.3 national regulations.85
million inhabitants in 1,160 with three incineration
plants also in existence have been established.
As of April 2019, packaging waste is collected
separately at the source in 499 municipalities. Box 1
A Zero Waste Project was initiated to foster
and recover recycling (within the framework of
a National Recycling Strategy). Municipalities
Resilience plan actions in Byblos,
with financing difficulties are supported by the Ramallah and Amman
Solid Waste Programme.83 The metropolitan
municipality of Istanbul has established a network Consistent with the participatory approach of the 100 Resilient
of container recycling across the city, the credits Cities (100RC) network the experiences and actions of the cities
of which can be spent on public transport fees. of Amman (Jordan), Byblos (Lebanon) and Ramallah (Palestine)
Beirut has partnered with a domestic private have helped identify major resilience challenges, as shaped by
waste management company to launch the first local conditions and structures. Those experience and actions
phase of a local waste recycling project. Again, have also assisted with the development of plans that truly
exposing perhaps a regional susceptibility to the reflect local priorities and concerns. Byblos’ resilience plan was
appeal of mega-planning, the city of Dubai has created through dialogue with key stakeholders — the Municipal
inaugurated its ‘Glow Garden’, a structure made Council, government ministries, the police, NGOs, academic
out of 500,000 recyclable glass vials, porcelain institutions, and civic groups. It prioritizes municipal data
ware, plastic bottles, dishes, and thousands collection and use as a prerequisite for improved planning and
of compact discs recovered from municipal city management. In Ramallah, the preparation of the resilience
waste — a reminder of the massive accumulation plan involved working groups from the Municipal Council,
of waste in densely urbanized settlements. universities and the private sector, as well as conversations
Many other essential elements of the SDGs, with local political and community leaders. A similar process
e.g. transport and energy, are being increasingly was followed in Amman for its resilience plan. Transport was a
integrated in the region’s municipal agendas. critical component for the Jordanian capital, and required the
The debate on alternative and sustainable development of an integrated mobility plan: this includes a
sources of energy and the improvement of public three-corridor Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) network, to open in 2019,
transportation — especially when considering the and the enhancement of walkability, especially through the
massive yet untapped potential for solar energy creation of a railway corridor park. All these measures augment
production in the whole area — is challenged initiatives against climate change, and the improvement of
by the easy access to fossil fuel energy in the digital connectedness, urban infrastructure and participatory
region. However, several examples show growing mechanisms.
progress in this regard. The city of Istanbul is
developing efficient management of energy in Source: 100 Resilient Cities network (https://www.100resilientcities.org).

municipal buildings, in facilities and parks. Several

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 37

 Resilient cities and vulnerabilities of Arab cities in the face of
and territories climate change, earthquakes, desertification and
Local governments in the MEWA region have flooding. The signatories committed to dedicate
been developing innovative approaches to part of their budget to risk prevention and
improve resilience and sustainability in their preparedness, awareness-raising and education
territories and communities. Amman in Jordan, on resilience and climate change, with particular
Byblos in Lebanon and Ramallah in Palestine, for attention given to vulnerable cultural heritage and
example, have all joined the 100 Resilient Cities protected sites, among several other measures.
(100RC) network: the membership has helped the
municipalities assess the status of their resilience Environment and
outlook and develop state-of-the-art strategic climate change
planning to adequately meet resilience criteria Climate change, which is central to the policy
(see Box 1). commitments and innovation framework of the
In Turkey, 141 Urban Regeneration and SDGs, is also a key issue for local governments and
Development Projects Areas and ten Renovation a fundamental challenge tackled by local initiatives
Areas in cities are being developed with the and activities. Besides SDG 13 on climate change,
support of the government (USD 2.83 billion environmental, resilience and sustainability
spent since 2012). Many cities, such as the Kocaeli issues are at the core of SDG 7 on clean energy,
Metropolitan Municipality are implementing a SDG 11 on cities and human settlements, SDG 12
Disaster Management and Decision Support on sustainable production and consumption,
System Project (AYDES) with the national Disaster SDG 14 on life below water, and SDG 15 on life
and Emergency Management Authority (AFAD). on earth. Throughout the MEWA region, many
The project implements an electronic tracking and municipalities developed initiatives and policies
management system for all stages of integrated that refer to a number of these Goals’ targets:
disaster management.86 30 cities made commitments within the Global
With the Aqaba Declaration,87 approved Covenant of Mayors for Climate and Energy in
at the first Arab Conference on Disaster Risk 2019.89
Reduction,88 in 2013, under the aegis of the In Jordan, the Greater Amman Municipality
UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) commited in 2015 to a plan to become a green
and UNDP, Arab countries and members of the city by 2020. In Turkey, several frontrunning
League of Arab Countries acknowledged the risks cities and municipalities have been implementing
Men chat in shrine near
Kashan, Iran (photo: Charles climate action plans for years, and have also been
Roffey, bit.ly/80zbB). joining various international networks active in
this field.90 Following a regulation passed in 2017,
municipalities are expected to increase green
areas in their spatial planning and improve their
accessibility. Taking initiative on air pollution
the number of air quality monitoring stations
increased from 36 in 2007 to 253 in 2017. Several
regional authorities, moreover, have developed
air quality improvement plans.91 The municipality
of Tehran organizes an annual Organic Week
Festival to promote sustainable land-use patterns.
The Corniche Area park, in the municipality
of Abu Dhabi, is an internationally awarded
structure which embodies the country’s quest
to join the highest global standards in planning
and management of public and green spaces.
Qatari cities are promoting the development
of desert campsites as a way to fund natural
resource protection and alleviate touristic
pressure on coastal localities. Similarly, the central
government is funding sustainable greenhouse
farming in cities. These kinds of interventions (and
not just mega-planning or top-down solutions)
are fairly endemic in the Gulf region, where local
government can count on significant financial
support from the national level. Are fairly endemic
in the Gulf region, where local government can
count on significant financial support from the
national level.

38 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

 In Iran, on the other hand, the Ministry for
Health and the Tehran Municipality have joined Box 2
forces with the Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA). The partnership seeks to improve
air pollution analysis equipment throughout the
Local Government Capacity
city, historically affected by extremely high levels Programme (LGCP), Palestinian
of pollution. Territory
Many cities in the region maintain policy
competences over coastline protection and
Building on the successful history of collaboration between
regulation, with a strong impact on marine
Palestinian local authorities and VNGi, the Local Government
environment and sea life preservation. The city
Capacity Programme (LGCP), in place from 2012-2016, focused
of Istanbul, for example, has managed waste
on local economic development in the Palestinian territory.
collection in the Bosporus and the Golden Horn:
The collaboration led to positive outcomes in sustainable
in the first three-quarters of 2018 alone, the city
development, lower unemployment and increased food security,
recovered 140 trucks of waste. The municipality of
thus helping improve the legitimacy of local governments in
Shahama, embedded in the Abu Dhabi metro area
their communities. The Dutch government, through its Ministry
in the UAE, has allocated parts of its budget to
of Foreign Affairs, backed an approach that promoted local
ecosystem protection for the marine environment
self-sufficiency: the LGCP initially supported the activities of
specific to the Abu Dhabi region.
12 local governments in the West Bank, providing both funds
and the capacity to stimulate local economic development. The
International
project was carried out under the umbrella of the MDLF, through
cooperation
which the most important donors to the area work together
The role of international donors and cooperation
with the Palestinian Authority. Selected local governments
agencies has been significant as well. The Swedish
could submit applications for financial and technical support
International Development Agency (SIDA) and the
for projects, workshops, on-the-job coaching and training. The
cooperation branch of the Swedish Association of
municipality of Bethlehem was the first to establish a Council for
Local Governments (SKL International) partnered
Local Economic Development, together with the private sector
in Iraq with the Al Qaddissiyah and Dohuk
and civil society, an output of the project’s participatory spirit,
governorates to establish the ‘Governance in
which put particular emphasis on the establishment of strategic
Social Care’ project (2012-2017). This project
business alliances.
supported improvements in social care at the
sub-national level.92 In Lebanon, assistance by Source: ttps://www.vng-international.nl/palestinian-territory-local-government-
European LGAs and international institutions has capacity-programme-lgcp-2012-2016.

been crucial to sustain healthcare, education and

relief provision to the refugee population and
other vulnerable groups not directly covered by
UN relief efforts. Palestine established an MDLF,93 an independent
In Jordan, the governorate of Al-Mafraq public institution which assists local governments
partnered with the City of Amsterdam and VNG in economic development promotion. While many
International (VNGi, the cooperation branch of of the stakeholders involved have been responsive
the Dutch national LGA) to develop a Municipal and aware of the SDG framework, actual localization
Assistance Programme for the Al Za’atari Refugee in the State of Palestine has hardly progressed,
Camp. VNGi also worked in Jordan, with funding mostly due to periodic violence and conflict in
from USAID, with the Cities Implementing the area (and the Gaza Strip especially), and the
Transparent Innovative and Effective Solutions continued Israeli occupation in the West Bank.
(CITIES) programme. The project provides In assessing the reach and impact of the SDG
technical assistance to governorates and municipal framework and the other global agendas in the
stakeholders to translate administrative reforms MEWA region, this section has demonstrated
into innovative and sustainable solutions for the activities and initiatives that are contributing
service delivery, participatory mechanisms and to the localization process. However, because of
community cohesion and stability — to improve the structural circumstances of the region, most
citizens’ awareness, responsiveness and resilience. progress and actions have been the prerogative
Donor assistance has been essential particularly in of national governments, occasionally with
the case of Palestine, where municipalities have the involvement or consultation of LRGs and
extremely scarce resources and political leeway local stakeholders. As a rule the motivation,
and are often unable to address local policy issues commitment and leadership of LRGs in the
autonomously. Palestinian cities have depended localization of the SDGs has a clear correlation
on external aid for public service and infrastructure with the degree of (planned) decentralization
provision and local economic development (see and/or the level of wealth and financial resources
Box 2 for an example, specifically cooperation available at the national level.
with the Dutch government). Additionally, in 2005

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 39

 04. Conclusions and
policy recommendations:
the state of SDG
localization in Middle
East and West Asia

Despite the immense socio-economic, cultural specifically, however, political and financial
and historical diversity of the MEWA region, resources are still concentrated in national
certain trends in the way in which countries ministries and presidential offices: the devolution
approach the SDG framework and the global of responsibilities to the provincial, metropolitan
commitments of the new agendas help elicit or local level has been partial at best, and
some region-wide conclusions. With the woeful progress in this regard has had significant
exception of Afghanistan and Yemen, the consequences.
MEWA region is now highly — and increasingly On the one hand, inconsistent devolution
— urbanized, and it is estimated that its cities has provided most MEWA cities — with perhaps
will have to accommodate more than 96 million the exception of Turkish municipalities — with
new residents by 2030. An exceptionally large an uncertain, unreliable mandate and strategic
youth cohort will continue to fuel the intense outlook to plan and manage urbanization and
demand for jobs, housing and services that — urban expansion and development. This has
with the exception perhaps of Gulf countries, affected the ability of local governments to
thanks to their reliance on the economy of include the mission and scope of the SDGs and
hydrocarbons — all countries in the MEWA the other global agendas in their own policy-
region will struggle to meet. making: thus, the dimensions of sustainability,
In recent years, recurring civil strife in inclusiveness and policy co-creation have
Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria and Yemen have inevitably been undermined. On the other hand,
exacerbated the challenge of the region’s high the financing issue is still essential for the quality
urbanization rate. War has destroyed urban and effectiveness of local government in the
infrastructure and torn the socio-cultural fabric region.
apart. This damage has rapidly spilled over to Municipalities, provinces and other local
neighbouring countries because of successive, authorities across MEWA countries still do
overwhelming waves of refugees displaced not have adequate financial resources and
by region-wide conflict. Against this gloomy mandates to fund a proactive role in a truly
backdrop, several MEWA countries have made multilevel governance (MLG) in the region.
impressive progress in accomplishing human This has translated into an endemic inability to
and economic development advances — thus fund service provision and infrastructural assets,
contributing to the achievement of several SDGs with the public sector especially compromised.
— despite the consequences and impact of The sole exception in the MEWA region is the
conflict. However, socio-economic and gender Gulf area. However the uniqueness of the GCC
inequalities remain major challenges for all countries’ highly centralized political systems
countries in the region. and the unprecedented resources available to
Ultimately, in the MEWA region as in the rest them through the extraction economy make their
of the world, urban planning and territorial local governments exceptional with features that
management are shared responsibilities in a would be hard to replicate elsewhere funds have
complex and evolving mechanism in which nurtured an approach to local policy-making
central, regional and local authorities work that relies on mega-planning urbanism and has
together to varying degrees of engagement concealed — when it has not neglected them
and effectiveness. In the MEWA countries altogether — issues of inequality, marginalization

40 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

and unaccountable or non-democratic rule. reached unsustainable levels in many countries,
There are several factors constraining local with high environmental impact and economic
governments' and the public administration's costs that considerably hinder the achievement of
ability to fully contribute to governance and policy- all related SDGs and targets. Any improvement
making. Inadequate property records and the in this regard, however, will inevitably require
specific organization of tax revenue and collection the devolution of more and better spatial
systems (many MEWA local governments, for control and development authority to the local
example, are still unable to collect user fees level, alongside the adoption of consistent and
reliably), in particular, have been hindering the full-fledged national urban policies (NUPs),
capacity of local governments to fund themselves integrated with strategies and plans across
and the provision of basic public services. If all levels. The impact on health, inequality and
MEWA local governments expect to play an socio-economic opportunity makes this point
active, guiding role in the implementation of particularly important with regard to the actual
the SDGs and the other global agendas — localization of the SDGs and their co-ownership at
such as the New Urban Agenda, the Sendai local and territorial levels.
Framework on Disaster Risk Reduction, and Ultimately, balancing the growing pressure
the Paris Climate Agreement — they will need of rapid urbanization and the achievement of
enhanced, reliable, effective local financing the SDGs and making them compatible in a
sources. Capturing their fair share of land- complicated and diverse region such as MEWA
value appreciation following public investment will require a major investment of political will
and improvement will be essential to funding and commitment. Even in spite of the historical
infrastructure and delivering better more inclusive legacy of strongly centralized governance
services. systems and the intense pressure of conflict, war
Finally, the region’s geography and ecology and destruction in many areas of the region, cities
and the organization of urban, territorial and spatial and territories have an opportunity to become
planning have made environmental challenges engines of growth and drivers of change for the
and the pressures of climate change particularly whole region.
threatening for MEWA local governments and To be effective, the next steps for MEWA
cities. With the exception of Turkey and Iran, all countries must include increased autonomy
other countries in the region are already using and resources devolved to more engaged
water at unsustainable rates — as skyrocketing and efficient local governments; increased
demand meets stagnating supply, dwindling capacities to provide, maintain and effectively
reserves and an average 20%-40% loss of water deliver basic public services and infrastructural
due to obsolescence or lack of maintenance of development (all the more important in war-
underfunded distribution networks. Similarly, torn territories); and a consistent governance
while access to improved sanitation systems mechanism able to empower a growing youth
has increased in almost all countries, these and urbanized population, allowing them to truly
statistics tend also to include poorer-quality, on- co-own their future and their land, and embrace
site sanitation systems with a high social and the opportunities offered by the SDGs.
environmental cost in most precarious or informal
settlements. Full high-capital water-borne
systems, in fact, have often not been expanded
to cover newly urbanized areas or more informal
neighbourhoods, with a strong negative impact
on quality of life and socio-economic equality.
Similarly, waste management and disposal
have been lacking in many urban systems across
the region, with significant spatial inequalities
in service provision and delivery. Recycling,
moreover, is not yet socially or economically
embedded in the urban culture of the area, and
has not therefore provided the same kind of relief
on environmental impact as it has in more aware
regions or urban systems. Even in spite of centralized
Traffic congestion is historically crippling in
the region’s larger cities, and generally mobility
governance and the intense pressure
across MEWA countries is highly dependent of conflict and war, MEWA cities and
on motorized private transport (even mass
transportation is usually performed, more or less
territories have an opportunity to
informally, with private and obsolete vehicles). become engines of growth.
Reliance on motorized, polluting vehicles has

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 41

 05. Policy
recommendations
at the global level

42 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

Our roadmap to accelerate
the achievement
of the 2030 Agenda
through the localization
of the SDGs

The transformation that needs to be brought adopted by the World Organization of United
about to achieve the global agendas will only Cities and Local Governments (UCLG) in 2016, as
occur if our development model responds to well as the annual reports of the Global Taskforce
the dreams and expectations of communities, of Local and Regional Governments (GTF) to the
and if there is collective responsibility to make UN High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable
the necessary adjustments and sacrifices to Development (HLPF) since 2017.
achieve more equitable, fair and sustainable In a context of increasing inequalities,
societies. endangerment of ecosystems and tensions that
The global agendas must either be local or they are threatening human solidarity, the GOLD V
simply will not be. The constituency of local and Report presents the efforts of a key constituency
regional governments (LRGs) has a critical role to that serves communities, responding to their
play to catalyse change and provide the kind of needs and hopes. It is a positive message about the
service delivery that will deliver inclusion, efficient impact that well-resourced localization can have
use of resources and sustainability. This LRG in a new vision for the sustainability of our planet.
constituency shares the sense of urgency to scale- The recommendations are addressed to local and
up and accelerate such a transformation. regional leaders and their organizations, to our
The findings of the GOLD V Report have partners, national governments, international
inspired policy recommendations that build upon organizations, civil society and social actors, as well
the ‘Bogota Commitment and Action Agenda’, as to the business sector.

Local and regional governments lead

the way towards a more equal and
sustainable world
In the globalized urbanization era, the actions of the Addis Ababa Action Agenda, that in turn
cities and LRGs are integral to the global agendas: are fundamental to changing the patterns of
it is at the local level that the interrelationship production and consumption as the basic premise
between the different agendas most clearly of the Paris Agreement on climate change and the
manifests itself. With regard to the global Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction.
agendas, getting the 2030 Agenda commitments The following recommendations situate the LRGs
right necessitates the full implementation of as drivers of an alternative territorial approach to
the principles of the New Urban Agenda and local development (TALD).

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 43

 Actions at • Foster an ecological and systemic relationship
between people and nature. LRGs must

local and regional support cohesion of the ‘urban-rural continuum’

and strengthen the interconnected policies that

levels halt deforestation and desertification; effectively

manage the current network of protected areas,
including terrestrial, freshwater (both surface
and ground) and marine areas; and improve
human wellbeing, particularly of indigenous
Galvanize forces for the populations and communities whose livelihoods
localization of the 2030 depend on forests, water and soil conservation
Agenda in our cities and and climate change mitigation.
territories • Achieve climate neutrality in cities and
territories, taking into account the life-long
LRGs and their global and regional organizations cycle of GHG emissions to proactively tackle the
have pioneered the localization of the SDGs. To climate emergency. Decoupling socio-economic
make the ‘quantum leap’ currently needed they development from environmental degradation
must: calls for well-planned urban development
and land management, responsible and fair
• Adopt the SDGs as a reference framework
management of natural resources and waste,
for LRGs' policies, programming, planning and
and ensuring the reduction of inequalities. It
budgets, ensuring a coherent and integrated
implies divesting from fossil fuels to free up
approach — mindful of the Paris Agreement
resources. These can in turn be invested to
on climate change, the Sendai Framework and
accelerate scaling-up the protection of most
empowered by the principles of the New Urban
vulnerable populations and ecosystems, and
Agenda.
offsetting any emissions that cannot be further
• Embolden ambitions by fostering greater reduced or avoided.
ownership of the communities and attain real
• Contribute to holding global warming to
local buy-in of policies. Co-creation with other
1.5ºC by the end of the 21st century, through
local stakeholders will be critical in the definition,
the collective definition of Territorially-
implementation and assessment of the
Determined Contributions (TDCs) feeding
localization process.
into the Nationally-Determined Contributions
• Share and learn: participate in LRG networks (NDCs) for the implementation of the provisions
and invest in peer-to-peer knowledge-sharing, of the Paris Agreement. Support the post-2020
practice exchange and training. Fostering and negotiation of the global biodiversity framework,
accessing technical assistance and decentralized as well as the Convention on Wetlands of
cooperation to promote the localization of the International Importance and the Convention
SDGs will be key. on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora.
• Link with science: serve as catalyser to foster
partnerships with research institutions and • Promote peace and city diplomacy by tackling
promote ‘labs’ to experiment with innovative the roots of local violence, educating for its
ways to implement, review and follow-up the eradication and to create a mindset that makes
localization process. it possible to build a culture of dialogue in cities
and territories. Foster cities and territories as
spaces for co-existence and peace through
measures that fight interpersonal violence,
extremism, racism, xenophobia, gender-based
Protect the commons, violence and other forms of intolerance, and
human rights and culture as introduce measures to integrate all citizens.

foundations of peace • Promote culture as the fourth pillar of

development and as a core component of
The preservation of the global commons local identity, a strand of global solidarity,
(biodiversity, land, atmosphere, oceans) that and a vector for peace and human rights.
determine the survival of all living beings, Foster locally relevant cultural policies and
as well as the protection of peace, cultural programmes on memory, heritage, creativity,
diversity and human rights, require strong diversity and knowledge, as intrinsic to local
local action and LRGs’ commitment to: sustainable development.

44 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

Put human rights and the in local decision-making, access to information
and communities’ ownership of the 2030
‘Right to the City’ at the Agenda and other global agendas.
core of the local agendas
– strengthen inclusive local
policies to ‘leave no one
behind’ Harness the co-creation of
Given its multiple dimensions, the eradication
cities and territories through
of extreme poverty is inextricably linked to the sustainable participative
protection of human rights. LRGs should put urban and land planning
the ‘Right to the City’ at the centre of urban
and territorial governance to ensure universal Planning needs to be the result of the political,
access to quality basic services, nutritious food, economic and social systems within which
health and education, economic opportunities, it is embedded. Deep reforms on planning
access to adequate housing and disaster risk regulations and frameworks are a critical
prevention for the most vulnerable. These are part of SDG localization and the New Urban
essential components of territorialized pro- Agenda. This includes the need to produce
poor policies. Partnerships with communities qualified professional planners and researchers.
and community-based organisations are By renewing participatory urban and spatial
instrumental in creating alternative solutions, planning, LRGs should:
particularly where public services are scarce.
• Adopt an integrated planning approach,
LRGs should commit to:
as reflected in the New Urban Agenda, to
• Remove any discriminatory legal and social strengthen the inclusive dimension of cities,
policy at the local level to ensure equal climate adaptation and mitigation and disaster
opportunities for all, particularly for women, risk prevention strategies, and multiply the
indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities, benefits of interlinkages between urban and
the LGBTQIA+ populations, the elderly, the territorial areas. Inclusive and participatory
youth, and people with mental and physical planning are key levers for the co-creation of
disabilities. Facilitate migrants' and refugees' sustainable and inclusive cities and territories.
access to rights and services, regardless of their
• Build capacities and retain local expertise
status.
to address rapid urbanization with adapted
• Tackle gender-based discrimination and approaches to reduce urban sprawl and avoid
violence with tailored policies, budgets and legal costlier retrofitting. Most urgent actions are
reforms. LRGs can raise awareness and reinforce needed in regions where rapid urban growth
education on the changing conception of gender will be concentrated (Sub-Saharan Africa and
roles. Women must be equally represented South and South-East Asia).
and granted equal powers in decision-making
• Scale-up efforts to build urban resilience
forums. It is necessary to enact gender-sensitive
and disaster risk preparation, involving local
policies in territories that promote equal access
communities, particularly vulnerable groups, in
to health and education and acknowledge the
particular in coastal cities and Small Developing
role of women in the domestic and informal
Island States (SIDs).
economy. Gender equality has a multiplier
effect in advancing sustainable development, • Contribute to promoting ‘polycentric’ urban
environmental protection and social justice. development to reduce core-periphery
divides, promote more compact and social-
• Support the fulfilment of the right to adequate
mix neighbourhoods, reduce inequalities and
housing for all, which includes affordability,
avoid urban segregation.
legal security of tenure, habitability, accessibility
and cultural adequacy standards, and must be • Create or preserve open public spaces to
understood within the framework of the ‘Right boost inclusion and protect urban heritage
to the City’. Promote inclusionary housing and culture, while also pursuing innovative
policies and slum upgrading initiatives that are solutions to foster creativity for sustainable
undertaken in partnership with the communities urban development.
and seek to avoid forced evictions.
• Curb urban sprawl, reduce distance between
• Promote the Principles of Open Government home and work places to reduce commuting
as a tool for the improvement of policy times and encourage access to alternative and
ownership and accountability. Create spaces safe modes of mobility (including walkable
and mechanisms that favour citizen participation cities) to reduce GHG emissions. Urban and

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 45

 spatial planning can lead to transformative use Focus on the future of
of renewable energy, and reduce the ecological
footprint of cities and territories, greening
jobs and local economic
public infrastructure and spaces, reducing air development (LED)
and waste pollution, and reducing risks such as
floods, drought or urban heat island effects. It is now urgent to steer a course away from
the patterns of economic growth, consumption
• Improve relationships with the surrounding
and production of goods and services that
peri-urban and rural areas, avoid land
perpetuate deprivations, generate inequalities,
degradation, and improve food security and
deplete the global commons and threaten to
farmers’ livelihoods.
cause irreversible damage to the environment.
• Enhance the management of natural protected LRGs should therefore:
areas and ecosystem services, such as upstream
watershed areas that the city relies on for fresh • Promote LED that helps generate sustainable
water supply, and support reforestation. socio-economic development tailored to the
particular needs and contexts of cities and
territories, and ensure decent work and respect
for responsible sustainability standards.

Improve access to sustainable • Prioritize quality local employment as a right

and tailor fully-fledged policies responsive
and inclusive public services to the barriers faced by and vulnerabilities
in cities and territories of specific groups, including women, youth,
ethnic and religious minorities or people with
LRGs need to develop an integrated and disabilities among others; likewise find inclusive
systemic approach that will guarantee universal solutions to involve migrants regardless of
reach. This includes universal access to safe their status; and facilitate intergenerational
drinking water and sanitation, to quality knowledge transfers to preserve, disseminate
education and health, to public affordable and evolve local know-how and crafts.
and sustainable mobility, to integrated waste
management and to affordable and clean • Create spaces for local innovation in order to
energy. LRGs need to: nurture and scale-up local capacities, including
those enabled by technology and nature-
• Develop infrastructure plans alongside urban
based industries; develop synergies with local
land-use plans, including long-term investment
initiatives; support small and medium-sized
strategies to guide economic and spatial
enterprises (SMEs) that contribute to sustainable
expansion, especially where there are pressures
growth and to create employment in their local
for growth.
environments, give impulse to productive
• Reduce the environmental impact of urban clusters and cooperative strategies both within
infrastructures and contribute to communities’ and between sectors and territories.
resilience.
• Ensure that new technologies and e-platforms
• Support inter-municipal cooperation or specific do not widen the divide that is consolidating
mechanisms that guarantee collaborations poor-quality employment, or priviledge
to ensure full coverage and adequate quality extractive systems of production that do
delivery in territories, be it in metropolitan not support communities’ social cohesion,
areas, cities or peri-urban areas, or between connectedness and wellbeing. Develop policies
neighbouring municipalities in rural areas. to protect people’s privacy, and foster traditional
• Guarantee access to affordable services local small business.
exploring new universal models of service
• Promote alternative economic models such
co-production, taking advantage of new
as the transition towards a circular and green
decentralized technologies; support small-
economy; support the social and collaborative
scale businesses as basic service providers and
economy and sustainable tourism. Support the
improve the quality oversight of services; and
transition towards territorialized food systems
gradually insert the informal economy into the
that foster good health while minimizing
organization of public service delivery.
environmental impact; and support efforts to
• Improve the management, delivery and reduce the environmental footprint.
transparency of public basic services, and
facilitate innovative partnerships for co- • Recognize the critical role that the informal
production and co-management. economy plays in the urban fabric. Because of
this contribution and the growing number of

46 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

 workers involved in informal economy activities • Coordinated strategies for the 2030 Agenda,
(estimated at over two billion people worldwide, the SDGs, the Paris Agreement on climate
among which women are ‘over-represented’), change and the New Urban Agenda are
LRGs need to take necessary steps and support an imperative. No single agenda can be
and create initiatives to help entrepreneurs in addressed in isolation. National sustainable
the informal economy. This must support them development plans (NSDPs), Nationally-
to evolve their activities towards the social and Determined Contributions (NDCs) to the
solidary economy, and promote the creation Paris Agreement and national urban policies
of mechanisms to facilitate access to social (NUPs), as well as other strategic plans, need
protection. to be articulated in order to overcome sectoral
fragmented strategies, improve the allocation
• Create enabling conditions, capacities and
of resources and boost implementation at all
confidence to mobilize the transformative
levels, from global to local and vice-versa.
power of public procurement, while respecting
the autonomy of LRGs to set their own policy
priorities. This should be done by mainstreaming
and implementing sustainable and decent
work policies, and fair, labour-friendly and
environmental clauses, and by encouraging Create an ‘enabling
a culture of transparent public contracts and
disclosure.
institutional environment’
for localization – empowered
local and regional
governments and adequate
financing flows to support
At the global localization are an imperative

and national Effective decentralization policies are intrinsic

to empowering LRGs and supporting SDG

levels localization. The principles of effective

decentralization are defined in the International
Guidelines on Decentralization and the
Strengthening of Local Authorities, adopted by
the UN-Habitat Governing Council in 2007.

Foster a global-local • LRGs need local autonomy and subsidiarity

principles to be respected in order to respond
movement to localize the to the demands of their inhabitants, to innovate
SDGs. Localization should be and to adapt national policies and the SDGs to
a pillar of national sustainable the local context. Urgent actions are needed to
strategies to implement the unlock LRGs’ potential to localize the SDGS and
ensure access to basic services for all.
SDGs
• Access to basic social services is a universal
To achieve the 2030 agendas on time, the pace principle acknowledged by the UN and a
of change needs to accelerate and ambitions building block for human development. LRGs
need to be bolder. National governments need to be empowered and accountable to
and international organizations should work ensure the delivery of quality basic services for
in collaboration with LRGs and their networks all, defined as direct or shared responsibilities in
to increase the outreach and strengthen the legal frameworks of a majority of countries,
partnerships of the 'whole-of-government' with to achieve the principle to ‘leave no one
the 'whole-of-society' to boost localization. behind’ — one of the core objectives of the
National governments should: 2030 Agenda.

• Integrate (or strengthen) robust localization • LRGs’ adequate fiscal powers and capacities,
strategies in their sustainable development as acknowledged by the Addis Ababa Action
strategies and action plans to expand the Agenda (paragraph 34) need strengthened local
involvement of LRGs and local actors, tax systems, including the power to capture
accelerating and upscaling territorial sustainable part of land and property added-value; a better
development. Localization strategies should be allocation of national fiscal revenues through
mainstreamed in all plans, programmes and fair, regular and predictable intergovernmental
budgets from national to local levels. transfers; and access to responsible borrowing

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 47

 to invest in sustainable public services and and academia in SDG implementation, are
infrastructures. Environmental taxes should critical to achieve the ‘whole-of-government’
be considered to advance energy transition and ‘whole-of-society’ approaches called for
and enshrine the ‘polluter pays’ principle into by the SDGs. It is also crucial to ensure policy
financing frameworks. Equalization funds and institutional coherence both internally and
are also necessary to ensure the adequate externally. Without the active and collaborative
redistribution of resources across the whole involvement of all stakeholders, the SDGs will
territory to avoid ‘leaving any territory behind’, remain aspirational goals only.
paying particular attention to intermediary cities
• At the national level, there is much to do in terms
and small towns and promoting more balanced
of effectively involving LRGs and stakeholders
and ‘polycentric’ urban systems.
in the national coordination mechanisms
• To mobilize national and international for the implementation of the SDGs. Limited
sustainable investments toward cities consultations and uncoordinated decision-
and territories, national policies and legal making presently hinder the policy coherence
frameworks should be revised. An appropriate necessary to achieve the SDG targets and
range of debt finance options needs to be reduce local ownership.
adapted and made accessible to LRGs, one
• Integrated national planning systems are at
that considers multiple sources of financing
the core of functional multilevel governance
and innovative financial instruments. It is also
systems and need to be revamped to
necessary to adopt vertically aligned NDC
enhance the coordination between national
investment plans and open or facilitate LRGs’
governments, LRGs and local stakeholders. A
access to climate and green funds.
renewed approach to planning that articulates
• Facilities supporting cities in making national strategies with strong local initiatives
transformative projects reach bankability and in active collaboration could recalibrate
creditworthiness standards are essential and development policies, facilitate burgeoning
require strong backing and leadership to close local actions and promote institutional
financing gaps and enhance match-making innovation. This collaboration needs to be
opportunities, either through specific funds, or founded on the respect of the principle of
connecting cities with potential financiers. The subsidiarity.
next phase, already in motion, is to support
• As decision-makers, LRGs need to be involved
a more diverse set of financial mechanisms
in the definition, implementation and follow-
that are adapted to the different capacities
up of NDCs and national strategies for the
of cities and territories, such as the upcoming
implementation of the New Urban Agenda.
International Municipal Investment Fund, set up
National urban policies (NUPs), adopted (or
by the UN Capital Development Fund (UNCDF)
in the course of being adopted) by more
and UCLG with the support of the Global Fund
than 92 countries, need to be integrated in
for Cities Development.
national development strategies (NDSs) to
• The promise of ‘blended finance’ can only take advantage of the cumulative benefits
be fulfilled with the creation of adequate of urbanization and identify cross-sector
regulatory frameworks and with support for synergies to support SDG implementation.
LRGs in setting up partnerships with the private
• Horizontal cooperation at the sub-national
sector. These must be mutually beneficial and
level (e.g. intra and inter-municipal cooperation)
have clear contractual parameters ensuring that
needs adequate governance mechanisms,
the needs of their citizens come first and that
tools and fiscal policies to foster urban-rural
the poor and vulnerable groups are not ‘left
partnerships and reinforce the management
behind’.
of growing metropolitan areas. Coordination
will also strengthen interconnections and
cooperation between territories for service
Effective involvement of all delivery and key environmental issues that
require reinforced and trans-jurisdictional
spheres of government, civil (and often trans-boundary) actions, such as
society and key stakeholders the management of river catchments and
is imperative to strengthen environmental resources.
the governance of the SDGs
and the localization process
Strong partnerships and the participation of
LRGs, civil society, private sector, social partners

48 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

Support the production A global governance system
and dissemination of that brings together local and
disaggregated data for regional governments and
monitoring, evaluation and civil society will boost the
impact measurement of the implementation of the global
localization of the global agendas
agendas, including the SDGs
• The UN High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable
• LRG involvement in the global and national Development (HLPF) will need to be reshaped
monitoring and reporting processes on to enhance the participation of different stake-
SDG implementation is crucial and should holders, as well as facilitate true innovation
not be limited to ad hoc consultations. The and learning. The HLPF should be an effective
process of Voluntary National Reviews (VNRs) multilateral and multi-stakeholder space for
needs improvement, to ensure the fully- dialogue, exchange and knowledge-sharing in
fledged participation of LRGs that brings the order to reinforce multilateral collaboration and
voice of the territories and local actors to the partnerships and ensure the real oversight of com-
process. mitments, policy agreements and implementation.
• Fragmented reporting systems hinder • The consolidation of the Local and Regional
ownership and the institutionalization of the Governments Forum is essential as a critical
SDGs across different spheres of government. space for interactions between the LRGs,
Strengthening local reporting capacities UN Member States, and the UN system.
and closing the data gap require particular Furthermore, multilevel dialogues need to
attention and support. National and local embolden the local-global leadership, as
capacities to define and collect disaggregated proposed in the ‘Seville Commitment’.
and localized data should be part of SDG
localization strategies to ensure that planning At the continental level, LRGs’ enhanced
processes at all levels are founded on realistic involvement in the regional forums (e.g.
targets and that effective implementation Regional Forums on Sustainable Development,
can be monitored, as well as to ensure co-organized by regional UN Commissions), in
accountability and citizen follow-up. multi-stakeholder platforms (e.g. the European
• Voluntary Local Reviews (VLRs) contributing to platform) and spaces (e.g. urban forums)
national monitoring and to the global debate, will enhance policy exchange to foster SDG
and promoting knowledge-sharing and localization and the active involvement of LRGs
emulation between LRGs, are opportunities that in the monitoring of the SDGs and related
need specific support and acknowledgment. agendas.
The audience at the Local
and Regional
Governments’ Forum, HLPF,
16 July 2018, New York
(photo: UCLG-CGLU/Joel
Sheakosk, bit.ly/31UjlHR).

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 49

 06. Notes
and Bibliography

50 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

Background — Notes
1 Independent Group of Scientists 3 United Nations Secretary-General, 6 UNDESA, “World Urbanization Prospects.
appointed by the Secretary-General, “Long-Term Impact of Current Trends in The 2018 Revision” (New York, 2018).
“Global Sustainable Development Report the Economic, Social and Environmental
2019: The Future Is Now – Science for Areas on the Realization of the 7 Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre
Achieving Sustainable Development” Sustainable Development Goals.” and Norwegian Refugee Council, “Global
(New York, NY, 2019); United Nations Report on Internal Displacement”
Secretary General, “Long-Term Impact 4 United Nations Secretary-General, “The (Geneva, 2018).
of Current Trends in the Economic, Road to Dignity by 2030: Ending Poverty,
Social and Environmental Areas on Transforming All Lives and Protecting the
the Realization of the Sustainable Planet” (New York, 2014).
Development Goals” (New York, 2019).
5 UNDESA, “World Population Prospects
2 IPCC, “IPCC Special Report 2018: 2019 Data Booklet” (New York, 2019).
Summary for Policymakers,” 2018.

Middle East and West Asia

region — Notes
1 UNDESA, “World Population 13 Bahrain, “Bahrain Voluntary National 26 Mona M. Fawaz, “Reflections on Best
Prospects 2017 Revision,” 2017. Review 2018,” 2018. Practices in Governance in ESCWA
Countries by Mona Fawaz Empowering
2 UNDESA, “World Urbanization 14 Kuwait, “Kuwait Voluntary National Local Government Institutions in the
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15 Lebanon, “Lebanon Voluntary National 27 Bertelsmann Stiftung, “BTI 2016 —
3 Estimated from UNDESA, 2011 and Review 2019,” 2019. Oman Country Report,” 2016.
World Bank Indicators, 2011.
16 State of Palestine, “Palestine Voluntary 28 See UNDP (POGAR) work on
4 Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, National Review 2018,” 2018. See decentralization and urban
“Afghanistan Country Report for Habitat also the responses to the 2018 Global management.
III,” 2015. Taskforce Survey.
29 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, “Saudi
5 International Organization 17 Turkey, “Turkey Voluntary National Arabia National Report - Third United
for Migration, “2015 Global Review 2016,” 2016; Turkey, “Turkey Nations Conference on Housing and
Migration Trends Factsheet,” Voluntary National Review 2019,” Sustainable Urban Development
IOM’s Global Migration Data 2019. (HABITAT III),” 2016.
Analysis Centre, 2016, https://doi.
org/10.1057/9781137007124.; UN- 18 Habib, “Local Government in 30 Sultan O Almarshad, “The
ESCWA, “Syria at War – Five Years On,” Afghanistan: How It Works and Main Impact of Good Governance and
2016. Challenges.” Decentralization Reforms on the
19 Habib. Effectiveness of Local Authorities: The
6 UNHCR, “The Situation of Palestinian Case of Saudi Municipalities,” 2011.
Refugees in Lebanon,” 2016. 20 Habib.
31 Badr Basalmah, “Local Governance
7 A more extensive discussion of the 21 NABZ-Iran, “An Introductory Primer on in Yemen: Challenges and
responsibilities of the various tiers of Local Government in Iran,” 2014. Opportunities,” Berghof Foundation,
government in the region follows in 2017, 7.
Section 2.2. 22 Alekajbaf Hossein, “Roles and
8 The countries that already submitted Responsibilities of Local Governments 32 Kheder Khaddour, “Local Wars and
their VNRs are Turkey (2016), (Councils) in Iran: Analytical the Chance for Decentralized Peace in
Afghanistan, Jordan and Qatar (2017), Underpinnings,” Research Journal of Syria,” Carnegie Middle East Center,
Bahrain, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia and Recent Sciences 3(9) (2014): 94–101. 2017.
the State of Palestine and Qatar for
a second time (2018). In 2019, Iraq, 23 UNDESA, “Islamic Repubilc of Iran 33 Jordan Ministry of Finance, “Fiscal
Kuwait, and Oman and Turkey also Public Administration Country Profile,” Decentralization in Jordan,” 2017.
submitted their VNRs for a second 2004.
34 ACE International Consultants,
time. 24 World Bank, “Republic of Iraq: “Repeat Public Financial Management
9 Shabnam Habib, “Local Government Decentralization and Subnational Assessment Following the PEFA
in Afghanistan: How It Works and Main Service Delivery in Iraq: Status and Methodology,” 2011.
Challenges,” NISPAcee Journal of Way Forward,” 2016.
35 ACE International Consultants, p. 71.
Public Administration and Policy, 2013. 25 Cravens Lamar and Derick W.
Brinkerhof, “Provincial Governance 36 Democracy Reporting International,
10 Institute for International Urban “BP 80: Reforming Decentralisation in
Development, “Strategic Urban in Iraq: Councils, Contestation,
and Capacity Building,” RTI Press Lebanon – The State of Play,” 2017.
Development Framework for
Governorates in Iraq,” 2018. Publications, 2013; Harlida Abdul 37 Tarkan Oktay, “Metropolitan
Wahab and Yuhanif Yusof Esraa Governance in Turkey with Regard
11 Iran, “Key Messages of Iran’s Voluntary Mahmood Badr Alsamee, “Distribution to Regionalism Approaches,” Bilgi
National Review (VNR) on SDGs,” of Powers Between Federal and Ekonomisi ve Yönetimi Dergisi XII–I
2017. Local Governments in Iraq,” Medwell (2017): 63.
Journals, 2016.
12 Qatar, “Qatar Voluntary National
Review 2018,” 2018.

GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 51

 38 With the exception of Beirut and Tripoli. 61 Jordan Ministry of Finance, “Fiscal 75 See United Nations, "Millennium
For more information see the report Decentralization in Jordan.” Development Goals Indicators" at
"ECODIT. State and trends of the http:// mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/default.
Lebanese environment", published by 62 Democracy Reporting International, aspx.
the Ministry of the Environment in 2010. “BP 80: Reforming Decentralisation in
Lebanon – The State of Play.” 76 However, almost half of school-age
39 Lebanon, “Lebanon Country Report for Syrian refugee children in Lebanon do
Habitat III,” 2015. 63 Hatoon Al-Fassi, “Is Female Suffrage in not attend school. UN-ESCWA, “Syria at
the Gulf Important?,” LSE Middle East War – Five Years On.”
40 Independent Directorate of Local Center Blog, 2017; UNDP, “Iraq Human
Governments, “Sub-National Development Report 2014,” 2014. 77 World Bank Development Indicators,
Governance Policy,” n.d. based on UN-HABITAT data, accessible
64 UNDP, “Iraq Human Development at https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/
41 See the work of UNDP (POGAR) on Report 2014.” EN.POP.SLUM.UR.ZS?locations=NP-
Kuwait’s decentralization. IR; UNDESA, “World Urbanization
65 Turkey, “Turkey Voluntary National
42 Adam Baron et al., “The Essential Role Review 2019.” Prospects The 2018 Revision”; Adena
of Local Governance in Yemen,” Sana’a Nima, “19 Million People Live in Iran’s
Center for Strategic Studies, 2016. 66 BTVL has developed a National Slums,” 2018.
Municipal Support Program around five
43 Refer to the General Directorates of themes: sanitation, waste management, 78 Pooya Alaedini and Farzin Fardanesh,
Local Authorities of Turkey at www. local heritage (Cultural and Natural “From Shelter to Regeneration: Slum
migm.gov.tr. Heritage project), local capacity-building Upgrading and Housing Policies
and metropolitan areas, specifically the in Islamic Republic of Iran,” Urban
44 UN-Habitat, “World Cities Report,” Greater Beirut region. Development and Revitalisation
2018. Organization, 2016.
67 Currently, there are fewer than 50 city
45 Mehmet Karasu, Mithat., Karakas, managers (or city manager equivalents) 79 More information about the programme
“Belediyelerin Emlak Vergisindeki Gelir for municipalities in the West Bank and is available online on the website of the
Kaybı” (Loss of Municipalities in Real Gaza. UNDP’s mission to Iraq: http://www.
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on Subnational Governments’ Finance capacities and frameworks, as well as project, Masdar City, when completed
and Investment,” 2019. developing a monitoring, reporting will obtain all its energy from renewable
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52 Agence Française de Développement, eliminate internal combustion vehicles.
“Local Government in Palestine,” 2010. on the Arab Development Portal
Model developed by the Regional 86 Turkey, “Turkey Voluntary National
53 OECD and UCLG, “World Observatory Hub; 2) Mainstreaming gender and Review 2019.”
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54 Habib, “Local Government in SDGs; 3) Supporting the government to files/31093_aqabadeclarationenglishfinal
Afghanistan: How It Works and Main prepare its national report and three or draft.pdf.
Challenges.” four governorate level reports as policy
platforms for promoting the SDGs as 88 More information about the Conference
55 UCLG, “Local Government Finance: The is available online: https://www.unisdr.
Challenges of the 21st Century, Second part of the NDP; 4) A special effort to
integrate and mainstream SDG 16 in org/we/inform/events/31093.
Global Report on Decentralization and
Local Democracy.” a post-conflict context, help produce 89 More details available at: https://www.
regular reports and recommendations globalcovenantofmayors.org/our-cities/.
56 Mehmet and Serdar Yimaz Tosun, that aim to strengthen the governance
“Centralization, Decentralization and dimension of the NDP, particularly the 90 For instance, 16 cities in Turkey are
Conflict in the Middle East and North dimensions of peace, justice, conflict members of the Global Covenant of
Africa,” 2008. prevention, equity and inclusion. Mayors for Climate and Energy.

57 Hayrettin Gungor, “Belediyelerin Genel 71 Turkey, “Turkey Voluntary National 91 Turkey, “Turkey Voluntary National
Bütçe Payları (National Budget Shares of Review 2019.” Review 2019.”
Municipalities),” 2018, 19.
72 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, “Saudi Arabia 92 For further information, visit: http://
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Incomes Is a Major Challenge for Urban 73 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Ninth 93 More information available
Management (Case Study: Tehran Development Plan, Paragraph 32.3. at: https://www.mdlf.org.ps/default.
Municipality).” aspx?LangID=en.
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Jordan: General Summary of the Results afghanistan/detail23_en.html (last
of the National Report,” n.d. accessed: February 3, 2019).

52 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

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WUP2018-Report.pdf. ———. “The Road to Dignity by 2030: Ending
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WPP2019_DataBooklet.pdf.

Middle East and West Asia region

— Bibliography
The 158 Voluntary National Reviews (VNRs) submitted to the UN High Level Political Forum by 142
countries between 2016 and 2019 have been consulted for the elaboration of the GOLD V Report,
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in this bibliography, you may find all such VNRs here: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/vnrs

Agence Française de Développement. (2010). Hossein, A. (2014). Roles and Responsibilities Kermani, M. (2017). The volatility of municipal
Local Government in Palestine. of Local Governments (Councils) in Iran: incomes is a major challenge for urban
Analytical Underpinnings. Research Journal management (case study: Tehran
Al-Fassi, H. (2017). Is Female Suffrage in the Gulf of Recent Sciences, 3(9), 94–101. municipality). QUID, (Special Issue N°1),
Important? LSE Middle East Center Blog. 987–997.
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54 GOLD V REGIONAL REPORT

The Localization
of the Global Agendas
How local action is transforming
territories and communities

The Middle East and West Asia (MEWA) presents distinct

and significant challenges with regards to the involvement
of local and regional governments in the achievement of the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). With a historical record
of strong centralization and authoritarian regimes, the region
has, in recent years, felt the impact of extensive conflicts in
Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, and Yemen; and experienced high
population growth and rapid urbanization, as well as massive
displacement. With the exception of Afghanistan and Yemen,
the MEWA region is now highly urbanized, and it is estimated
that its cities will have to accommodate over 96 million new
residents by 2030.
The countries of the MEWA region are characterized by a
high degree of centralization, with only very few exceptions.
This also applies to the various tiers of local government:
provincial governors tend to have substantial powers over
municipal governments, either through the direct appointment
of local authorities or the delivery of local services, or even
both in many cases. These centralized systems of governance
inevitably influence the SDG implementation process. All
countries in the region have similar multi-tiered governance
structures: governorates, districts and municipalities in
urbanized areas, and governorates and villages in rural areas.
This multi-tiered system of governance is reflected in the
institutional structures that are being created in each country
for the implementation of the SDGs. With the exception of
Syria and Yemen, SDG principles have been incorporated into
current national development strategies.
There is plenty of evidence on the role of local governments
and their national associations in the successful localization of
the SDGs from around the world. While the SDGs as a framework
are inherently intergovernmental and their realization tied to Sponsored by:
national policies, budget and political will, the achievement
of most Goals still depends extensively on the cooperation,
commitment, and participation of local and regional authorities.
Despite the immense socio-economic, cultural and historical
diversity of the MEWA region, certain trends and common
challenges can be observed in the way in which countries This publication was produced with the financial
support of the European Union. Its contents are the
approach the SDG framework and the global commitments sole responsibility of UCLG and do not necessarily
of the different agendas. To meet their existing and future reflect the views of the European Union.

developmental challenges, MEWA countries must ensure

the autonomy of local governments and increase their
engagement, devolving more resources and allocating more This document has been financed by the Swedish
International Development Cooperation Agency,
capacities to provide, maintain and effectively deliver basic Sida. Sida does not necessarily share the views
public services and infrastructural development (all the more expressed in this material. Responsibility for its
content rests entirely with the author.
important in war-torn territories). They must also put in place
consistent governance mechanisms able to empower a growing
young and urbanized population, allowing them to truly co-
own their future and their land, and embrace the opportunities
embedded in the SDGs. Supported by:

Facilitated by:

The GOLD V Regional Report

on Middle East and West Asia