Bárta, M. "Social Contract, Divine Order and the Pyramids." In Spuren Der Altägyptischen Gesellschaft. Festschrift FüR Stephan J. Seidlmayer, edited by R. Bußmann, I. Hafemann, R. Schiestl and D. A. Werning. Zeitschrift FüR Ägyptische Sprache Und Altertumskunde. Beihefte, 225-31, 2022
In this brief essay, I seek to outline the essential, though often neglected role common people p... more In this brief essay, I seek to outline the essential, though often neglected role common people played in cementing the divine status of the Egyptian pharaohs. In fact, the monumental architecture of the ancient Egyptians
shows best the mutual relationship between the pharaoh and the elite of the state on one side and the rekhyt people, the commoners – peasants, workers and craftsmen who once made it possible to see the king as a divine
and uncontested being – on the other.
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Books by Miroslav Barta
These sites are as follows (starting in the north): Abu Rawash, Giza, Zawiyet el-Aryan, Abusir, Saqqara, Dahshur, Mazghuna, Lisht, Meidum, Lahun, Hawara and Abydos. Included was also the site of Abu Ghurob with the two sun temples of Userkaf and Nyuserra of the Fifth Dynasty and the so-called minor step pyramids dating from the late Third – early Fourth Dynasty which start in Seila at the northeastern edge of the Faiyum Oasis and include, those of Zawyet Sultan, Nubt (Naqada), Abydos (Sinki), Hierakonpolis (el-Kula), Edfu (Ghonemeia) and Elephantine.
The individual sites are characterised on the background of their local topography and changing nature of their development over time as reflected by the position of individual monuments, including the principal ones – the pyramids of the Old and Middle Kingdom. Individual chapters focus on principal royal and non-royal monuments, their locations and their significance both within the site and with regard to neighbouring sites with pyramid complexes. Each chapter, each site provides a different story in terms of its structure and content. This reflects the simple fact that every site developed under different conditions, in different local setting, had its own internal logics, its pace and its genuine characteristics. Each site also reflects a specific historical situation and tells a different story of its development and rediscovery.
It is strongly believed that the latest technological advances, including the satellite imaging in Egyptology, will ultimately translate into their systematic use in sites’ protection and management, site and landscape analysis and long-term strategies of both ongoing and future excavation and survey projects in Egypt. As for now, most pyramid fields are more and more intensively endangered by the modern development and locally dominated neglect of the need for their preservation. Some of them, such as Mazghouna or Lisht are on the foremost front of this trend. Despite all current outstanding odds, pyramid fields of Egypt represent the very substance of Ancient Egypt which came down to us and deserve our attention, respect and care.
With contributions by Adela Oppenheim and Dieter Arnold, The Metropolitan Museum of Arts, New York; Miroslav Bárta, Czech Institute of Egyptology, Charles University, Prague;Richard Bussmann, University of Cologne; Andrzej Ćwiek, University of Poznan; Veronika Dulíková, Czech Institute of Egyptology, Charles University, Prague; Peter Jánosi, University of Vienna; Mark Lehner, Ancient Egypt Research Associates and “Associate” at the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; Mohamed Megahed, Czech Institute of Egyptology, Charles University, Prague; Massimiliano Nuzzolo, Institute of Mediterranean and Oriental Cultures, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw; Stephan Seidlmayer, German Archaeological Institute, Cairo; Miroslav Verner, Czech Institute of Egyptology, Charles University, Prague and Josef Wegner, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Over time, four royal complexes of Fifth-Dynasty kings were built in the Abusir pyramid field during the Old Kingdom. In addition, members of the royal family and the state’s high officials constructed their tombs here. In their shadow, lower-ranking officials, along with their wives and children, would be buried. All of these monuments tell thousands of multifaceted stories, from which we can reconstruct the history of the world’s oldest territorial state.
As the Abusir burial ground is so vast, it comes as no surprise that several different non-royal burial sites gradually arose independently of each other in this widespread area over the course of the third millennium BCE. While the factors influencing their position, nature and time of origin varied, key considerations would undoubtedly have been the location of the Old Kingdom’s capital, White Walls, the evolution of the network of settlements, the local cult topography, and the main communications connecting the necropolis with the Nile valley. Although much of the site remains unexplored, current knowledge and archaeological research offer a relatively detailed awareness and description of how it developed in time and space. Each of the burial sites tells, in its own specific way, the story of its time and of the owners of the individual tombs. These monuments reflect the dynamics and transformations of ancient Egyptian society. The following text provides a very limited description of some of these sites, drawing on the enormous wealth of sources known to date .
almost three quarters of the planet Earth’s surface. The water cycle on
and around the Earth has a fundamental effect on climate conditions.
Water is all around us, renewable and in a seemingly inexhaustible
supply. There is a widespread belief that everyone is entitled to it and
that it costs almost nothing. Water has also been and will always be one
of the major factors that determine the quality of everyday life with an
impact on every human being and on the course of human history. This
exhibition tells the story of water. Water that is seemingly endless and
eternal. However, it may not evermore remain so.
Vody oceánů, v nichž vznikl veškerý život na této planetě, pokrývají téměř tři čtvrtiny povrchu planety Země. Pohyb vody na Zemi a kolem ní zásadně ovlivňuje klimatické poměry. Voda je všude kolem nás, obnovitelná a zdánlivě nevyčerpatelná. Velice často panuje názor, že všichni na ni mají nárok a téměř nic nestojí. Voda také vždy byla, je i bude jedním z hlavních faktorů ovlivňujících každodenní kvalitu našeho života, každého člověka i lidské dějiny. Tato výstava vypráví příběhy vody. Vody, která je zdánlivě nekonečná a věčná. Nemusí tak tomu být ale navždy.
It is probably not out of place here to thank all the contributors for their cooperation during the editorial process. Our sincere thanks go to Jolana Malátková and Martin Odler for their invaluable help during the preparation of the volumes and to the Serifa publishing house. We also wish to thank all members of our institute for their help and encouragement.
Bárta, M. and Krejčí, J., eds. 2000
Abusir and Saqqara in the year 2000. Archiv Orientální. Supplemena 9. Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Oriental Institute, Prague.
Coppens, F., ed. 2002
Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2001. Proceedings of the Symposium (Prague, September 25th– 27th2001), Archiv Orientální Supplementa 70.3 (Prague 2002), 261–425.
Bárta, M., Coppens, F. and Krejčí, J., eds. 2006
Abusir and Saqqara in the year 2005. Proceedings of the conference held in Prague, June 27-July 5, 2005. Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Prague.
Bárta, M., Coppens, F. and Krejčí, J., eds. 2011 Abusir And Saqqara In The year 2005. Proceedings of the conference held in Prague, May 30 – June 4, 2010 (2 volumes). Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague.
At the same time these ideas represented some of the founding elements of the Egyptian identity. It now becomes feasible to postulate that the Western Desert populations of the Sixth and early Fifth millennia BC may be considered as partial intellectual precursors of the ancient Egyptians who contributed to the specific character of this civilisation, transferring to the Nile valley their mundane experience and transcendental conceptions. These populations merged with older Nile valley inhabitants due to the harsh depredation of the Western Desert environment and considerably expanded the ancient Egyptian culture (Bárta 2010, passim).
The present volume of the Abusir series concentrates on the mastaba of Neferinpu (AS 37). It aims to present primary data and their basic analysis and interpretation acquired during the tomb examination by the Czech Institute of Egyptology during two subsequent seasons of 2006 and 2007 and followed by some minor campaigns in 2012 and 2013 and a specific analytical campaign in September 2014 carried out by the Japanese team from Tokyo University of Sciene. The mastaba was built by a sun priest and official Neferinpu who reached the peak of his career during the reign of Nyuserra and Djedkara.
Altogether fifteen chapters are contained in the present volume. They cover all major aspects of the mastaba’s history: names and titles of Neferinpu and his family, architecture, decoration, finds, graffiti, pottery, model stone vessels, anthropological and zoological finds, radiocarbon sample, artefacts possibly related to the mastaba, 3D scanning of selected artefacts, facial reconstruction of two individuals including Neferinpu and X-ray Raman spectroscopy analysis of selected artefacts. Next to it, the first and last chapters are dedicated to more general aspects of the site and the mastaba and her owner and related to a general historical background of the period. Throughout the publication, the reader should find a companion to subject- and period-specific issues concerning the development of Ancient Egyptian society of the day. Broad scope of issues covering political, religious, symbolical, social and behavioural aspects of Neferinpu’s time and his close circle of related persons can be followed and negotiated.
Since sampling permits are virtually impossible to obtain in contemporary Egypt (and this in fact significantly hampers a deep resolution archaeology in the field), the multidisciplinary team had to limit itself to more traditional kinds of analysis. The only exception being radiocarbon dating carried out in cooperation with the French Institute of Archaeology in Cairo, the 3D scanning and modelling of two persons discovered in the compound and X-ray Raman spectroscopy analysis of selected artefacts. Despite this, it is hoped that the current monograph will meet the expectations of most members of the scientific community.
• Hardcover: 112 pages
• Publisher: Dryada (April 23, 2010)
• Language: English
• ISBN-10: 8087025261
• ISBN-13: 978-8087025260
• Product Dimensions: 10.7 x 9.9 x 0.8 inches
Author: Miroslav Bárta, photographs Martin Frouz
The book is printed on a certified FSC paper
Distribution: www.amazon.com
The origins of ancient Egyptian civilisation have been attracting the attention of archaeologist ever since the beginnings of Egyptology more than 200 years ago. This book presents a new and original interpretation of the rock art in Egyptian Western Desert which is of a key importance for our understanding of the roots of ancient Egyptian civilisation. Indeed, her very origins can be most likely dated to the 6th millennium B.C. In this time and the centuries to follow the paintings in the Cave of the Swimmers known from a blockbuster English Patient and in the Cave of Beasts discovered only few years ago were created. These caves are located in a distant and hardly accessible part of Egypt, on the border of Egypt, Libya and Sudan.
The rock-art preserved in these caves features several unique motifs that will become cornerstone of ancient Egyptian iconography and mythology. Among them may be named the motif of the sky goddess and the earth god, prototypic representation of an ancient chieftain in the much later pharaonic guise or the concept of cave creatures protecting the entrance to the Netherworld.
During the Fifth and Fourth millennia B.C. the vast areas of Western Desert suffered from a major depredation of climate that most likely caused a gradual evacuation of the region and instigated appearance of permanent settlements in the Nile valley which led to genesis of ancient Egyptian culture. The present study aims to present a theory according to which at least some parts of the discussed rock art in the Western Desert was created by an ancient mind that later on contributed to the intellectual emergence of ancient Egyptian civilisation in the Nile valley.
"
These sites are as follows (starting in the north): Abu Rawash, Giza, Zawiyet el-Aryan, Abusir, Saqqara, Dahshur, Mazghuna, Lisht, Meidum, Lahun, Hawara and Abydos. Included was also the site of Abu Ghurob with the two sun temples of Userkaf and Nyuserra of the Fifth Dynasty and the so-called minor step pyramids dating from the late Third – early Fourth Dynasty which start in Seila at the northeastern edge of the Faiyum Oasis and include, those of Zawyet Sultan, Nubt (Naqada), Abydos (Sinki), Hierakonpolis (el-Kula), Edfu (Ghonemeia) and Elephantine.
The individual sites are characterised on the background of their local topography and changing nature of their development over time as reflected by the position of individual monuments, including the principal ones – the pyramids of the Old and Middle Kingdom. Individual chapters focus on principal royal and non-royal monuments, their locations and their significance both within the site and with regard to neighbouring sites with pyramid complexes. Each chapter, each site provides a different story in terms of its structure and content. This reflects the simple fact that every site developed under different conditions, in different local setting, had its own internal logics, its pace and its genuine characteristics. Each site also reflects a specific historical situation and tells a different story of its development and rediscovery.
It is strongly believed that the latest technological advances, including the satellite imaging in Egyptology, will ultimately translate into their systematic use in sites’ protection and management, site and landscape analysis and long-term strategies of both ongoing and future excavation and survey projects in Egypt. As for now, most pyramid fields are more and more intensively endangered by the modern development and locally dominated neglect of the need for their preservation. Some of them, such as Mazghouna or Lisht are on the foremost front of this trend. Despite all current outstanding odds, pyramid fields of Egypt represent the very substance of Ancient Egypt which came down to us and deserve our attention, respect and care.
With contributions by Adela Oppenheim and Dieter Arnold, The Metropolitan Museum of Arts, New York; Miroslav Bárta, Czech Institute of Egyptology, Charles University, Prague;Richard Bussmann, University of Cologne; Andrzej Ćwiek, University of Poznan; Veronika Dulíková, Czech Institute of Egyptology, Charles University, Prague; Peter Jánosi, University of Vienna; Mark Lehner, Ancient Egypt Research Associates and “Associate” at the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; Mohamed Megahed, Czech Institute of Egyptology, Charles University, Prague; Massimiliano Nuzzolo, Institute of Mediterranean and Oriental Cultures, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw; Stephan Seidlmayer, German Archaeological Institute, Cairo; Miroslav Verner, Czech Institute of Egyptology, Charles University, Prague and Josef Wegner, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Over time, four royal complexes of Fifth-Dynasty kings were built in the Abusir pyramid field during the Old Kingdom. In addition, members of the royal family and the state’s high officials constructed their tombs here. In their shadow, lower-ranking officials, along with their wives and children, would be buried. All of these monuments tell thousands of multifaceted stories, from which we can reconstruct the history of the world’s oldest territorial state.
As the Abusir burial ground is so vast, it comes as no surprise that several different non-royal burial sites gradually arose independently of each other in this widespread area over the course of the third millennium BCE. While the factors influencing their position, nature and time of origin varied, key considerations would undoubtedly have been the location of the Old Kingdom’s capital, White Walls, the evolution of the network of settlements, the local cult topography, and the main communications connecting the necropolis with the Nile valley. Although much of the site remains unexplored, current knowledge and archaeological research offer a relatively detailed awareness and description of how it developed in time and space. Each of the burial sites tells, in its own specific way, the story of its time and of the owners of the individual tombs. These monuments reflect the dynamics and transformations of ancient Egyptian society. The following text provides a very limited description of some of these sites, drawing on the enormous wealth of sources known to date .
almost three quarters of the planet Earth’s surface. The water cycle on
and around the Earth has a fundamental effect on climate conditions.
Water is all around us, renewable and in a seemingly inexhaustible
supply. There is a widespread belief that everyone is entitled to it and
that it costs almost nothing. Water has also been and will always be one
of the major factors that determine the quality of everyday life with an
impact on every human being and on the course of human history. This
exhibition tells the story of water. Water that is seemingly endless and
eternal. However, it may not evermore remain so.
Vody oceánů, v nichž vznikl veškerý život na této planetě, pokrývají téměř tři čtvrtiny povrchu planety Země. Pohyb vody na Zemi a kolem ní zásadně ovlivňuje klimatické poměry. Voda je všude kolem nás, obnovitelná a zdánlivě nevyčerpatelná. Velice často panuje názor, že všichni na ni mají nárok a téměř nic nestojí. Voda také vždy byla, je i bude jedním z hlavních faktorů ovlivňujících každodenní kvalitu našeho života, každého člověka i lidské dějiny. Tato výstava vypráví příběhy vody. Vody, která je zdánlivě nekonečná a věčná. Nemusí tak tomu být ale navždy.
It is probably not out of place here to thank all the contributors for their cooperation during the editorial process. Our sincere thanks go to Jolana Malátková and Martin Odler for their invaluable help during the preparation of the volumes and to the Serifa publishing house. We also wish to thank all members of our institute for their help and encouragement.
Bárta, M. and Krejčí, J., eds. 2000
Abusir and Saqqara in the year 2000. Archiv Orientální. Supplemena 9. Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Oriental Institute, Prague.
Coppens, F., ed. 2002
Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2001. Proceedings of the Symposium (Prague, September 25th– 27th2001), Archiv Orientální Supplementa 70.3 (Prague 2002), 261–425.
Bárta, M., Coppens, F. and Krejčí, J., eds. 2006
Abusir and Saqqara in the year 2005. Proceedings of the conference held in Prague, June 27-July 5, 2005. Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Prague.
Bárta, M., Coppens, F. and Krejčí, J., eds. 2011 Abusir And Saqqara In The year 2005. Proceedings of the conference held in Prague, May 30 – June 4, 2010 (2 volumes). Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague.
At the same time these ideas represented some of the founding elements of the Egyptian identity. It now becomes feasible to postulate that the Western Desert populations of the Sixth and early Fifth millennia BC may be considered as partial intellectual precursors of the ancient Egyptians who contributed to the specific character of this civilisation, transferring to the Nile valley their mundane experience and transcendental conceptions. These populations merged with older Nile valley inhabitants due to the harsh depredation of the Western Desert environment and considerably expanded the ancient Egyptian culture (Bárta 2010, passim).
The present volume of the Abusir series concentrates on the mastaba of Neferinpu (AS 37). It aims to present primary data and their basic analysis and interpretation acquired during the tomb examination by the Czech Institute of Egyptology during two subsequent seasons of 2006 and 2007 and followed by some minor campaigns in 2012 and 2013 and a specific analytical campaign in September 2014 carried out by the Japanese team from Tokyo University of Sciene. The mastaba was built by a sun priest and official Neferinpu who reached the peak of his career during the reign of Nyuserra and Djedkara.
Altogether fifteen chapters are contained in the present volume. They cover all major aspects of the mastaba’s history: names and titles of Neferinpu and his family, architecture, decoration, finds, graffiti, pottery, model stone vessels, anthropological and zoological finds, radiocarbon sample, artefacts possibly related to the mastaba, 3D scanning of selected artefacts, facial reconstruction of two individuals including Neferinpu and X-ray Raman spectroscopy analysis of selected artefacts. Next to it, the first and last chapters are dedicated to more general aspects of the site and the mastaba and her owner and related to a general historical background of the period. Throughout the publication, the reader should find a companion to subject- and period-specific issues concerning the development of Ancient Egyptian society of the day. Broad scope of issues covering political, religious, symbolical, social and behavioural aspects of Neferinpu’s time and his close circle of related persons can be followed and negotiated.
Since sampling permits are virtually impossible to obtain in contemporary Egypt (and this in fact significantly hampers a deep resolution archaeology in the field), the multidisciplinary team had to limit itself to more traditional kinds of analysis. The only exception being radiocarbon dating carried out in cooperation with the French Institute of Archaeology in Cairo, the 3D scanning and modelling of two persons discovered in the compound and X-ray Raman spectroscopy analysis of selected artefacts. Despite this, it is hoped that the current monograph will meet the expectations of most members of the scientific community.
• Hardcover: 112 pages
• Publisher: Dryada (April 23, 2010)
• Language: English
• ISBN-10: 8087025261
• ISBN-13: 978-8087025260
• Product Dimensions: 10.7 x 9.9 x 0.8 inches
Author: Miroslav Bárta, photographs Martin Frouz
The book is printed on a certified FSC paper
Distribution: www.amazon.com
The origins of ancient Egyptian civilisation have been attracting the attention of archaeologist ever since the beginnings of Egyptology more than 200 years ago. This book presents a new and original interpretation of the rock art in Egyptian Western Desert which is of a key importance for our understanding of the roots of ancient Egyptian civilisation. Indeed, her very origins can be most likely dated to the 6th millennium B.C. In this time and the centuries to follow the paintings in the Cave of the Swimmers known from a blockbuster English Patient and in the Cave of Beasts discovered only few years ago were created. These caves are located in a distant and hardly accessible part of Egypt, on the border of Egypt, Libya and Sudan.
The rock-art preserved in these caves features several unique motifs that will become cornerstone of ancient Egyptian iconography and mythology. Among them may be named the motif of the sky goddess and the earth god, prototypic representation of an ancient chieftain in the much later pharaonic guise or the concept of cave creatures protecting the entrance to the Netherworld.
During the Fifth and Fourth millennia B.C. the vast areas of Western Desert suffered from a major depredation of climate that most likely caused a gradual evacuation of the region and instigated appearance of permanent settlements in the Nile valley which led to genesis of ancient Egyptian culture. The present study aims to present a theory according to which at least some parts of the discussed rock art in the Western Desert was created by an ancient mind that later on contributed to the intellectual emergence of ancient Egyptian civilisation in the Nile valley.
"
Na základě dnešních poznatků archeologie a historie se zdá velice pravděpodobné, že dějiny se neodehrávají lineárně, ve smyslu neustálých pozvolných změn, ale naopak prostřednictvím velkých náhlých skokových změn. Právě kritická období, která vykazují zásadní změny postihující společnost ve všech jejích aspektech se nazývají období přerušovaných rovnováh. Právě tehdy se v krátkém historickém úseku celá společnost zásadně změní ve všech svých podstatných částech (subsystémech). Výsledkem je historie jakoby rozlámaná do menších a více či méně jednotlivých homogenních úseků oddělených přeryvy zásadních změn odehrávajících se ve velmi krátkých – z pohledu historika –okamžicích - skocích. Velmi často můžeme tyto skokovité změny spojit i s konkrétní osobností.
Johannes Gutenberg (1397/1400–1468) byl jednou z mnoha vynikajících osobností, které zásadním způsobem změnily charakter světa a přispěly k jeho hlubokým proměnám bez toho, aby se staly prezidenty, ministerskými předsedy nebo jinými vrcholnými činiteli. Ani Gutenberg však zřejmě netušil, k čemu jeho dílo přímo i nepřímo povede.
noteworthy is the occurrence of the title throughout the Old Kingdom. While there is limited evidence of its appearance during the Second, Third and early Fourth Dynasties, it becomes relatively frequent from the reign of Nyuserra. In fact, two attestations of the title holder(s) originate from his pyramid complex. From this time on, the title becomes relatively common. Moreover, during the Sixth Dynasty, most of the title holders were also viziers. The holders of the title appear to be linked to the residential zone as their tombs
are located predominantly in Giza, Helwan and Saqqara, with only two in the provinces.
According to Gonzáles Léon’s study, most of the title holders were related to physicians and to the priesthood of the god Khnum who, in turn, was closely linked with the institution of the archives called the ‘House of Life’.
The following short contribution focuses speci¤cally on two Abusir holders of the title for several reasons. Their tombs have been discovered relatively recently and their rank may o³er an insight into their social status and role at the court. The holders of the title are Kairsu, a high official and sage, and Kairsu, most likely a member of his family. Their adjacent tombs are located north of the pyramid of Neferirkara.
shows best the mutual relationship between the pharaoh and the elite of the state on one side and the rekhyt people, the commoners – peasants, workers and craftsmen who once made it possible to see the king as a divine
and uncontested being – on the other.
I bring attention to one single element of the ancient Egyptian society – the social contract, a quality only sporadically if at all discussed in Egyptology. This invisible, immaterial yet in my view one of the most essential elements of every society and civilisation is in fact omnipresent as far as the ancient Egyptian evidence is concerned.
The present discussion will therefore focus first on elucidation of several particular details which seem to be relevant for the current discourse and for the understanding of the meaning and significance of the title.
What will be attempted here is to suggest a tentative outline of its development ith the emphasis put on its contextual and diachronic interpretation reflecting the changing state of certain: components of the society. It will be demonstrated that the history of this very title presents itself as an interesting social phenomenon. In order to attain the meaning of the title as precisely as possible during the period under discussion, the associate titles born by the royal entourage at court are discussed first.
The emerging concept of historical development outlined above can be, in my view, successfully applied for a description of some of the irregularities which once governed the development of ancient Egyptian society during the Od Kingdom. Stephen Jay Gould and Nils Eldridge in the early 1970s formulated a new theory, describing the nature of processes encountered in evolutionary biology. It was a theory that explained some formerly incomprehensible patterns in the distribution of fossil remains over a long period of time. They concluded, due to a lack of other evidence, that instead of an evolutionary linear concept, one may well apply a theory of punctuated equilibria. This appeared to be a much more suitable explanation for the observed phenomena.
In simplified terms, the original concept of “punctuated equilibria” means that species (following the original studies of Eldridge and Gould) continue to exist in an apparently balanced way, punctuated by major individual events introducing crucial changes within that basic species, or group evolution. These major developmental changes tend to happen in certain discrete peri- ods of time divided by rather uneventful periods of stasis when no significant development takes place.
If we look now at the data which we have analyzed for the Old Kingdom, we can see that a similar “punctuated” pattern emerges. The explanatory potential of the punctuated equilibrium concept seems to work quite well when applied to Old Kingdom history. There is every reason to believe that it can be applied to other periods as well. The results given above have proven to have had a significant bearing on how we can now view Old Kingdom history. With regard to the Old Kingdom, it seems to be appropriate to assume that the evidence at our disposal is rich enough and sufficiently heterogenous to allow for such a theory, thus avoiding the risk of coming to speculative conclusions.
In my opinion, Old Kingdom history should no longer be considered as a rather homogenous continuum represented by individual pharaohs and monuments arranged into a regular evolutionary scheme: on the contrary, it emerges as an intricate open system in which several historical individuals embedded in specific historical contexts managed considerably greater achievements than others. It would certainly deserve a detailed study if the “events” must always be connected to a historical personage. For the time being, this seems to be the most probable context.
Equally powerful can be the concept of punctuated equilibrium when applied to an analysis of the development, rise and fall of any given complex society—as it has done in the case of the history of Old Kingdom Egypt. The fact that we can bind specific innovations to specific historical circumstances and embed them in a particular historical context lets us detect more satisfactorily the decisive turns in the development of any given society.
In this particular case we can see without any significant bias that factors that formerly initiated dramatic success of the ancient Egyptian state gradually transmuted into negative ones that contributed to the decline and eventual collapse of the Old Kingdom. Thus the roots of principal internal factors contributing to a system’s ultimate demise can be detected already in the formative stage of the system. Their former positive feedback eventually turns them into factors that usher in a crisis of the system. At the same time, it is the shortening and eventually total disappearance of the equilibrium periods which is indicative of the approaching collapse of the current state of affairs.
The multiplier effect, coupled with the concept of punctuated equilibrium, represent tools with which it is possible to better understand the nature of some traditional phenomena in history. Moreover, this concept provides a rather different perspective from the former notion of history as a continuous uninterrupted current of more or less isolated events.
Five main developmental phases of the Lake of Abusir are interpreted. The area was used as a principal entryway to the cemeteries of Saqqara and Abusir during the third millennium BC. These cemeteries were built to serve the capital of ancient Egypt, the WhiteWalls, which was established around 3000 BC. The old Nile terrace deposits constituted the background for the tiled pavement built during the Old Kingdom period. Later, this pavement was
partly destroyed by heavy outwash, and the anthropogenic features were overlain by a layer of pure sand.
Subsequent sedimentological development is characterized by increased desiccation interrupted by several phases of elevated moisture due to the activity of the local hydrological system. Due to the function of Wadi Fetekti, thick colluvial deposits were preserved.
Miroslav Verner or Miroslav Bárta (ongoing) used different approaches to the identification and cataloguing of the individual features. This article aims to provide all interested parties with necessary concordance to
the current method of numbering and registration of archaeological features and a notion of their positions within the site. Majority of principal structures and pyramid complexes have been published or are currently
being prepared for publication in the monograph series Abusir. Many minor features whose processing is largely still under way are being gradually published in the Czech or English version of the journal Pražské
egyptologické studie / Prague Egyptological Studies, especially in the form of preliminary archaeological reports containing the main characteristics of the archaeological entities under study and their interpretation.
Some archaeological reports can be found in other journals and monographs published in the Czech Republic and abroad. An overview of the site’s history and research results can be found in various publications
from recent years, mostly catalogues.
The archaeological concession of the Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Abusir covers an area of approximately 2 km2 divided into three main zones – Central Abusir (AC), Abusir West (AW)
and Abusir South (AS). Central Abusir contains the pyramid complexes of Fifth Dynasty rulers, the tombs of royal family members as well as tombs and burials from later periods. Abusir West is characterized by large
shaft tombs from the Saite-Persian period. Abusir South served above all as a cemetery for officials, their families and members of their households in the Early Dynastic Period, the Old Kingdom and, in a limited extent, also in the subsequent periods when many so-called secondary
burials were located there, usually concentrated close to larger Old Kingdom tombs. The image of the site’s archaeological history is made complete by partial research carried out in the area of the Lake of Abusir
situated in the south-eastern part of the concession adjoining the village of Abusir where Georg Steindorff and Uvo Hölscher worked, and of the temple of King Ramesse II on the eastern edge of the concession, spatially categorized within Abusir South.
expression of Ancient Egyptian culture as such. In non-royal tombs, belonging predominantly to high officials of the state, statuary used to be displayed either at the entrance into the tomb, in serdabs adjacent to the chapels or, in several cases, in the chapels or in the corridors leading to them.Very little attention, if any, has been dedicated to statuary in the burial chambers. Quite logically, in fact, since explicit attestations of them were practically non-existent, it was unconditionally believed that except for the reserve heads, they had no place there. The present evidence for statuary in burial chambers originates from several tombs discovered recently in the Abusir South and Abusir Central cemeteries. The three examples given below seem to seriously challenge the opinion that there were no statues in the burial chambers during the Old Kingdom period.
may cast new light on traditional or long-term
assumptions. As can be seen, some important
monuments remaining from ancient Egyptian
civilization may lack complete surveying and
documentation, not to mention interpretations
of their historical and cultural contexts. These
limited parameters can contribute towards an
insufficient understanding of the monuments
and their patrons. In this particular case, the
tomb of Ty significantly adds to the narrative
of the reign of Nyuserra, during whose reign
ancient Egyptian society underwent complex
transformations that affected all major parts
of its culture, be it state administration, social
mobility, the system of patronage and heredity
inheritance of many state offices, religion and
the introduction of Osiris, monumental royal
and non-royal architecture, tomb decoration,
or arts. Archaeologies of identities, individuality
and in-dept analyses of their microcosm impact
how we may understand these social dynamics,
hierarchies, power, authority, and monumental
architecture as cultural expressions. Ty, however
mysterious he still remains, was clearly an
innovator that led to a completely transformed
character of the era of the Old Kingdom pyramid
builders. Surely, the cemetery of this wealthy
official is still full of surprises – as Egyptologist
Zahi Hawass often says: “You never know what
secrets hide beneath the sands of Egypt!”
reign of Neferirkare – Nyuserre. The mastaba features several highly unusual characteristics. Basalt blocks had been used for
the pavement in front of the façade and in the chapel. To date, it is the only attestation of such a practice in a non-royal tomb
in the Old Kingdom. Some of the titles of Kairsu show that he was a high ranking official. Kairsu was overseer of all royal
works of the king and foremost of the House of Life. There was a very close link established between this institution, which
was in fact a centre of knowledge and wisdom in the Old Kingdom, and the god of creation Khnum. It is also important that
the House of Life appears from the reign of Nyuserre when Osiris is attested for the first time. Another important feature
of the tomb is the fact that the statue of the tomb owner was placed in front of the sarcophagus. This only confirms the
previous assumption that ancient Egyptians were placing statues not only in different areas of tombs’ superstructures but
also in the burial chambers. There is a strong possibility that the owner of the tomb may be identical to the famous sage
of Egyptian history, who, according to a much later tradition, was author of the Loyalist teaching, Teaching for Kagemni and
Teaching of Kairsu and also father of the early Sixth Dynasty vizier Kagemni.
decline of state institutions as well as the agency and historical impact of exceptional kings and individuals. In this contribution, the Fifth Dynasty tomb complex of Ty dated to the reign of Nyuserre (early 24th century BC) is discussed. Ty was the first of wealthy Old Kingdom officials who initiated the construction of monumental richly decorated tomb complexes for themselves and their families. Ty serves as a specific example of a microcosm illustrating the significance of general trends on which the
Ancient Egyptian society of the day operated. At the same time, it features several characteristics which have theoretical impact and relevance for comparative study of civilisations and their dynamics.
Keywords: Complex societies – Ancient Egypt – Old Kingdom – punctuated
equilibrium – social status race – Abusir and Saqqara – Fifth Dynasty – tomb of Ty –nepotism – Nyuserre
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keywords: Ancient Egypt – Old Kingdom – Abusir and Saqqara – landscape – agency – tombs – false door origins
It was German explorer Ludwig Borchardt at the beginning of the last century and Czech Egyptologist Zbyněk Žába in the 1960’s and 1970’s who carried out excavations in the area to the east and northeast of the pyramid of Nyuserra in Abusir pyramid necropolis, one of the most important rulers of the Fifth Dynasty and of the Old Kingdom in general. Their work led to the discovery of several important tomb complexes dating to the late 25 and early 24 centuries B.C., above all the monumental tomb of the vizier Ptahshepses. These complexes were built in the reign of Nyuserra or shortly thereafter and are essential for the study of his reign. There followed several decades without any successive activity. Only in 2018, the works in the area were resumed in order to open a new stage in the multidisciplinary study of the history of the Fifth Dynasty.
The newly discovered mastaba belonged to an official Kaires and was located immediately north of the pyramid of Neferirkara in Central Abusir. It has been largely destroyed already during antiquity. It is oriented in a north-south direction, with an entrance from the east. Its ground plan measures 29.20 x 16.10 m and its superstructure is built of local limestone outer wall including some really large blocks with mud brick core masonry. The space in between them was filled with sand and rubble. Despite its current stage of preservation, its surviving remains are still impressive both in scale and in quality of execution.
Many titles indicate that Kaires was one of outstanding officials of his time, not radically different in his duties from the office of the vizier. He acted as inspector of the wab priests in the Abusir funerary complexes of Sahure and Neferirkare and had also a so far unattested title of the priest of Hathor in Kis in Upper Egyptian nome 14. Kaires was also very close of the king. It is also the location of the tomb in the cemetery, its architecture such as unusual division of individual rooms, basalt blocks used for flooring of the entrance and the chapel, the construction of the burial apartments of Kaires that only emphasize his unique social status. Based on the current evidence, the Abusir Kaires is the only Old Kingdom official of this name with an own tomb. In this connection it can be interesting to mention that the Ramesside papyrus Pap. Chester Beatty IV makes references to famous sages of Egyptian tradition and also mentions certain Kaires. Almost certainly the same Kaires is mentioned on one block originating from a 19 Dynasty Saqqara tomb published in 1952 by a Frech Egyptologist J. Yoyotte. Could it be that this mastaba is in fact the resting place of this famous sage? Given the tradition that the sage Kaires was probably also the father of Kagemni, this could be a perfect match. The preliminary date of the mastaba is anticipated to be the reign of Nyuserra or any time shortly thereafter. It is hoped that this year’s excavation will be able to shed more light on this unique personage buried in the sands of Abusir.
2018 The Afterlife Existence Captured in Stone.The Sixth Dynasty False Door Stela of Inti in the Social and Religious Context In The Art of Describing. The World of Tomb Decoration as Visual Culture of the Old Kingdom. Studies in Honour of Yvonne Harpur, edited by P. Jánosi and H. Vymazalová, pp. 53-84. Charles University, Prague.
The scene with two representations of the tomb owner at the table of offerings depicted on the central panel of the false doors of the Old Kingdom Egypt was not a random composition. Quite on the contrary, it was a very thoughtful abbreviation of an elaborate concept related to the transition of a man from this world to the afterlife. It can be first observed in the mid Fifth Dynasty, a period of several profound changes, which had a deep impact on the further development of the Egyptian society, religion and state towards the end of the Old Kingdom.
In fact, a much later tradition of the Book of the Dead expresses a very similar concept. The vignettes of Chapter 105, referring to the coming of the deceased to ka and joining it in the afterlife, also include the two individuals’ principal stages discussed so far. The opening stage of this chapter of the Book of the Dead contains a vignette in which the deceased is rendered as a person with a gesture of devotion or veneration. The concluding stage, on the other hand, shows him as the one who has attained the blessed afterlife existence. The Book of the Dead thus con.rms the two different concepts ascribed to the two different representations of the deceased at the table of offerings facing each other and the exceptional existence of the two false doors of Ty in his Saqqara tomb. This concerns not only the different selection of gestures for each of them used to express the different status of the deceased, but also the spatiality, the orientation of both figures facing each other, which refers to two different temporal actions. These frame the whole process of the transformation of the deceased into a resurrected being.
Keywords: Old Kingdom – Abusir – Fifth Dynasty – cemeteries – burial ceremonies –ritual of breaking red sherds
2016 "Dummy mummification" in the Old Kingdom: a new intact case from the 5th Dynasty , Abusir. In Rich and Great. Studies in honour of Anthony J. Spalinger on the ocassion of his 70th Feast of Thoth edited by R. Landgráfová and J. Mynářová, pp. 15-17. Czech Institute of Egyptology, Prague.
The study deals with the burial of priest Neferinpu from the 24th century B.C., reign of Nyuserra - Djedkara which was found in Abusir South. His burial demonstrates that at this period dummy mummification was not a rare case. The general characteristics of his burial arrangement shows valuable details pertaining to the symbolism and rituals of the Ancient Egyptians and their perception of the afterlife prerequisites.
Sura in the Gilf Kebir mountain range located deep in the Egyptian Western Desert. Based on the formal analysis of the scene, the possibility of its relationship with the much later Ancient Egyptian iconography of a running Egyptian king during the sed festival of the renewal of magical forces of the pharaoh is considered and discussed.
On the Cave of the Swimmers and the possible roots of Ancient Egyptian civilisation
It has been long supposed that the roots of ancient Egyptian civilisation were connected with the climatic depredation of the Western Desert which led to the last wave of intensive sedentarisation in the Nile valley. In turn, these ‘newcomers’ to the Nile valley contributed to the process of formation of ancient Egyptian civilisation. The latest analysis of the rock-art motifs in the area of Gilf Kebir in Egypt's Western Desert provides evidence for the theory that at least some concepts traditionally connected with ancient Egypt and its civilisation may had been formulated at least several hundred years before this state came into being around 3,000 BC. It is above all the decoration of the Cave of the Beasts that indicates that the local prehistoric populations of herders were the authors of several mythological concepts that later became key elements of ancient Egyptian culture and concept of the world. At the same time these ideas became some of the basic principles of the ancient Egyptian incipient state. It is therefore not entirely out of question that some segments of Western Desert populations of the sixth and early fifth millennia B.C. that migrated to the Nile valley due to climatic stress may be considered the intellectual precursors of the ancient Egyptians. This may come as a surprise because ancient Egyptians considered the west, the Western Desert, to be places of oblivion, death and destruction.
Dlouho se předpokládalo, že kořeny staroegyptské civilizace souvisejí se zhoršujícím se klimatem egyptské Západní pouště, které vedlo k poslední vlně usazování tamních obyvatel v údolí Nilu. Ti obratem přispěli k formování staroegyptské civilizace. Poslední analýza skalního umění v oblasti Gilf Kebíru v egyptské Západní poušti poskytuje nové důkazy pro teorii, podle které se určité koncepty charakteristické pro staroegyptskou civilizaci zrodily několik století ne-li tisíciletí před tím, než tato civilizace vznikla. Především tzv. Jeskyně šelem poskytuje důkazy o tom, že tehdejší místní populace chovatelů dobytka stály u zrodu několika mytologických konceptů, které se později stanou klíčovými prvky staroegyptské kultury a myšlenkového světa starých Egypťanů. Zároveň se tyto myšlenky staly základními principy rodícího se staroegyptského státu. Ve světle nových interpretací skalního umění tak můžeme některé populace obývající Západní poušť v průběhu 6. a 5. tis. př. Kr. považovat za intelektuální předchůdce starověkých Egypťanů, kteří se v důsledku nepříznivých klimatických změn postupně v průběhu 5. tis. př. Kr. usadili v údolí Nilu. Tito lidé se mísili s již přítomnými obyvateli a přispěli k utváření staroegyptské kultury a civilizace. To se může zdát překvapující, tím spíše, že Egypťané považovali západ a Západní poušť za místa zapomnění, smrti a zániku. O to zajímavější je pozorovat, že jejich předchůdci pravděpodobně přišli i z tohoto prostoru a usadili se v údolí Nilu.
Basic references / základní odkazy
For the detailed publication of the Cave of the Beasts see/Detailní monografie Jeskyně šelem:
Kuper, R. et al. (2013). Wadi Sura - The Cave of Beasts, Africa Praehistorica Vol. 26, Cologne: Heinrich-Barth-Institute.
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On the theory itself / k vlastní teorii:
Barta, M. (2011). Swimmers in the sand. On the Neolithic origins of ancient Egyptian mythology and symbolism. Prague: Dryada.
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Bárta, M. (2014). Prehistoric mind in context. An essay on possible roots of Ancient Egyptian civilisation. In K. Kristiansen, L. Šmejda & J. Turek (Eds.), Paradigm Found: Archaeological Theory – Present, Past and Future. Essays in Honour of Evžen Neustupný (pp. 188-201). Oxford: Oxbow Books.
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A panel of experts will discuss punctuated equilibria theory in specific contexts based on their own professional experience.
Co se tedy stalo? Co rozhodlo o tom, že tato technologie prakticky zmizela? Odpovědi bývající často pouze částečné a odpovídají zájmu toho či onoho autora. Teorie sdíleného zájmu tvrdí, že tehdejší korporace jako Standard Oil a General Motors tuto technologii sabotovaly a aktivně proti ní bojovaly kupováním patentů a lobismem. Technologická teorie zase tvrdí, že překážkou byly objektivně neefektivní baterie respektive jejich nedostatečný výkon, tedy množství energie vydané na kilogram jejich váhy. Spotřebitelská teorie naopak vychází z toho, že je to právě zákazník, který rozhoduje o úspěchu výrobku. V tomto případě se jednalo o nejvyšší možnou rychlost a zároveň maximální dojezd elektrického automobilu, které byly v obou případech mnohem nižší ve srovnání s benzínovým motorem. Bohužel všechny tyto teorie jsou buď chybné nebo značně neúplné. Abychom porozuměli příběhu auta, které čekalo prakticky století na svou budoucnost, musíme vzít v potaz Ameriku tehdejší doby, hlavní protagonisty tehdejšího technologického pokroku Tomase Alvu Edisona a Henryho Forda a jejich osobnostní profily, které v tomto směru hrály skutečně významnou roli a v neposlední řadě tehdejší společnost s přihlédnutím ke struktuře osídlení měst a venkova, kvalitě komunikací a povaze zaměstnání a velikosti prudce rostoucí střední třídy počátku dvacátého století.
The Abusir boat bridges the gap between Khufu's royal ship and the Early Dynastic boat burials discovered at Abydos, Saqqara, Helwan and Abu Rawash. While the erratic preservation environment had reduced the majority of the hull to frass and fragments, painstaking excavation revealed spectacular examples of the complex lacing system used to bind the planks together, as well as other delicate construction elements seen nowhere else. The construction methodology is significantly different than that of Khufu's royal ship, and provides critical insights into ancient Egyptian shipbuilding techniques. Given the technological features and the position of the boat in the non-royal environment, this artefact challenges several traditional opinions about the society, burial customs and the
modes of interaction between the royal and non-royal spheres of the period.
Čím se v tomto příspěvku chci zabývat, je poměrně jednoduché pozorování, podle nějž ty faktory, které stojí u vzestupu daného společenského systému, jsou obvykle těmi samými, které nakonec přivodí jeho krizi, na kterou bezprostředně v dalším kroku (obvykle) naváže etapa regenerace a dalšího vzestupu. Z toho také vyplývá pozorování druhé, totiž že pokud chceme porozumět tomu, proč je nějaký systém ve skutečné nebo zdánlivé krizi, je chybou zabývat se pouze danou fází krize. Mnohem prospěšnější tak je zaměřit se na etapu, během které byl tento systém konfigurován a nabíral dech, byl na vzestupu. Tam – pokud identifikujeme faktory, které u tohoto vzestupu stály – obvykle nalezneme klíč nezbytný k porozumění etapě vlastní krize. Vedle toho se pak budu snažit poukázat na určité specifické vlastnosti „cyklického“ konceptu opakování jistých vývojových tendencí.
I argue that the specific political and religious arrangements developed by the Fifth Dynasty Kings in Abusir became a direct source of inspiration for Amenhotep III and IV and their "revolution". Both processes share many common characteristics and show the depth and continuance of Ancient Egyptian history.
In this contribution I shall address one specific and still rather unclear element in the decoration of the Cave of Beasts. Unlike Cave of the Swimmers, this site was discovered by an expedition led by col. Ahmed Mestekawy and Italian explorers Massimo and Jacopo Foggini in 2002. The cave is in fact a big, largely sanded abri overlooking and dominating local landscape. The decoration of the cave has been preserved almost intact and consists of several thousands of painted micro-compositions with unclear relationships to each other.
The scenes in the caves of Gilf Kebir show quite clearly that local communities of herders inhabiting vast expanses of what is nowadays Western Desert were quite complex and able to devise sophisticated intellectual concepts as witnessed by the rock art of Gilf Kebir caves. They were throughout capable of embedding of their local communities life within a broader etiological system that served as a cement of the social law and order. Focusing on the relevance of evidence provided by the Cave of Beasts, several general observations may be drawn. The rock art provided legitimacy to the social order of the communities of the day by representing victory of the chieftain on behalf of his population. The rock art also emphasized the key role of the local headman by paying attention to running figure of the chieftain. Most likely, the rock art also offered an elaborate explanation how to perceive the physical world (above all earth and sky) that surrounded these communities. The figures of the ‘headless’ beasts only complement this approach. The interpretation of these figures offered in the present text favours the explanation that they represent guards protecting the entrance into the netherworld which was located in these caves, and ultimate judges evaluating every soul entering this liminal transcendental zone of transition from one world to another. As a consequence, these particular compositions may be seen as introducing ethic appeal inasmuch they imply that entering the netherworld may be possible only after meeting the ‘qualifying’ ethical criteria.
As such, this particular scene composition played a major role in the society as it significantly helped to define and maintain order and social contract among the individual members of the community. Together with some other scenes loaded with socially and religiously important meaning they attest to the complexity and elaborate social order in past societies long ago the emergence of state-like level.
The major aim and scope of this chapter is to discuss and provide a more general context for what has traditionally been understood as political history of the Old Kingdom. The bulk of presented evidence will be relevant for a better understanding of the inner dynamics of the first Egyptian state and individual and roles played by the king, the elite of the country and the majority of population. At the same time, it will be demonstrated that in an effort to arrive to an as much as possible complete picture of the period, major fields of evidence such as history, archaeology, texts, administration, arts, architecture, religion, iconography and environmental data must be related and brought together. These individual spheres were never mutually exclusive and cannot be separated or isolated from each other. They represent what Samuel Huntington calls identity of civilisation and they traditionally stand for what we today imagine as Old Kingdom. A case will also be made that many ground-breaking changes and innovations forming the general dynamics of the period were concealed in small details such as inconspicuous titles, individual architectural features or landscape connotations. It will emerge that Old Kingdom Egypt was not short of brief eventful periods of change when basically all major characteristics of the society of the day underwent principal and abrupt changes which led to a new setup of things and relationships within the society.
the following motifs: running chieftain (renewing his magical powers and physical forces), chieftain smiting his enemies, the ethiological myth of Earth and Sky, swimmers as the souls of the deceased individuals, creatures protecting the Netherworld and eventually what seems to be the earliest depiction of the hereditary principle. Surprising as it may be, the suggested link between the Gilf Kebir local populations of hunter-gatherers and cattle keepers, or the Western Desert populations in general, and the much later populations inhabiting the Nile valley finds additional support in the recent discoveries at Gebel Ramlah cemeteries located in between Gilf Kebir and Aswan and slightly later in time. This cultural transfer and a major movement of the local populations in an west-east direction may be explained by the increasing environmental stress and deteriorating climate which started in the sixth millennium BC.
Summing up the importance of the evidence provided by the Cave of the
Swimmers and the Cave of the Beasts, we may conclude that these caves:
– provided legitimity to the current social order by fostering the topicality of
victory of the chieftain on behalf of his population (smiting and running
male figures, likely being chieftains);
– portray a sophisticated etiology how to imagine the physical world, earth
and sky, that surrounded those communities;
– introduce ethics appeal – indicating means of resurrection after meeting
the ‘qualifying’ criteria in order to attain the afterlife (headless beasts);
– they cemented the current status of the community by perpetuating the
hereditary principle;
– they provided each member of the community with individual experience
of the transcendental realm (pair-hands).
What the contemporary archaeology of historical periods in Egypt seems to confront on a daily basis is above all a very simple observation: that on a particular site, things remain ‘the same’ for a long period of time and then, after this period of rather uneventful development, they rapidly change. The whole social-political system is exposed to a series of vital changes that inluence basically every component (subsystem) of the society. At the same time, it is always a series of seemingly unrelated features which undergoes vital transformation (Bárta 2015a). Take, for instance, Egyptian non-royal tomb development during the Third Dynasty and the very beginning of he Fourth Dynasty. The tombs in the Third Dynasty display several common features – mud brick architecture, varying sizes, limited decoration in the chapels, very few (if any) inscriptions, speciic burial equipment including many stone vessels, extensive offerings, etc. Then, seemingly all of sudden, the very same category of tombs at the beginning of the Fourth Dynasty displays signiicant changes in virtually all aspects associated with tomb development. The size of the tombs becomes standardised, they are built of limestone, offering chapels become limited, the decoration becomes standardised and so does also the substructure, consisting of a shaft and a single burial chamber. Symbolic prayers – the so-called hete-di-nisut formula – were invented and became an indispensable part of the inscriptions within the tomb’s chapel and new classes of pottery are introduced to cut the costs of the funerary offerings, cult and burial equipment. Full-size stone vessels disappear almost completely (Bárta 1995). This process, relected through the speciic category of tombs, was only a consequence of a much broader development within society; tombs and cemeteries were only mirroring various aspects of social, political, economic, administrative and religious development and changes within the society of the period (Baines & Lacovara 2002; Ikram & Dodson 2008; Bárta 2012, with references).
of the climate and the increasing migrations due to civil wars, military conflicts and environmental changes. The meaning of the word ‘stability’ is itself variable and it is often difficult to keep up with the rapidly occurring changes in our world. In contrast to recent past, de-globalisation seems to be taking place in many parts of the world as indicated by recent developments. Severe crisis may be striking without a preliminary call, approaching unnoticed yet with a force, magnitude and consequences we could hardly predict. However, matters were different just a few years ago. The world seemed to function well, the climate appeared more or less stable and there seemed no reasons for worries. Only a few opinion makers and experts were able to raise their voices in apparent discontent anticipating things looming behind the horizon. All these phenomena make the study of the so-called collapse attractive again. There is every reason to believe that from the study of long-term processes which governed societies in the past we may gather solid information and build a theory that would help us to understand our current world. This might in turn help us to discuss possible trajectories for our future. If nothing else, the seven laws may be considered a strategic plan for reducing our future susceptibility for the collapse of our own society and design new strategies how to diminish its impact and consequences. This can be done with the help of seven general laws which seem to be defining every civilisation.
Miroslav Bárta, Charles University, Czech Institute of Egyptology, Czech Republic
The modern world appears like a multipolar arena with penetrable frontiers which are becoming more and more fuzzy, one that offers an array of divergent forms of truth and feels like a melting pot of national and global interests that are in permanent harmony and conflict at the same time. Permanent competition and conflict between the interests of a few and many dominates the public space. The nature of military conflicts has likely changed. Unlike in the past, when wars were easily identifiable and limited in space and time, nowadays the commonplace of wars is not only a specific geographic region, but more often it can be cyberspace, mass media or economic systems, which all lack physical borders. Nowadays, war can be won or lost without a single drop of blood being spilled. It can be lost even without noticing it. Last but not least, vital changes appear to come into being as if out of nothing, unexpectedly and seemingly without any cause. In this paper, I propose to apply the so-called Heraclitus law and the model of punctuated equilibria to the deep archaeological past to provide models for military organizations in the present to predict future conflicts and their specific forms.
As a consequence of these complexities, modern armies around the world have significantly changed by definition and nature. In contrast to the past, it is not only a force defending a given country and geographic region. Armies have been converted into a force that has – in addition to traditional modes of acting – goals to ensure political stability and/or security in its mother’s country or counter climatic instability. To meet such challenges armies unavoidably require analytical tools which can be provided exclusively by interdisciplinary research anticipating and explicating long-term trends and major laws underlying the evolution of any given civilization. It is for this reason, that the ‘deep-time’ archaeological record of the past is so germane to planners today. One of the most important theories is punctuated equilibria theory that is based on the evidence of history from many continents and several millennia of complex civilisations existence, provides a multispectral and efficient tool for mapping long term trajectories and for predicting major periods of instability and ‘leap changes’. Thus we need Big history, Deep time, and Big data to find our way into the future and make the world more stable and safer.
By definition this theory postulates that major changes take place abruptly and change entirely the nature and principles on which a given system operates. Such a ‘leap period’ is always preceded by a longer period of stasis, a seemingly uneventful stage, during which all components of the whole system (be it economic, social, administrative, symbolical, political etc.) accummulate the potential for a major change. After reaching a critical level of multiple minor changes and and the increasing impact of diminishing returns of the system, the period of stasis (or equilibria) disappears and the individual subsystems start to intensify their interactions with each other, eventually leading to a deep and complex change of the overall structure and operating principles of the system.
What emerges is that we need to analyse long term tendencies and deep time data from as many spheres of human activities as possible in order to recognize and predict the loss of equilibria and an aggravation of potential for a leap in the form of a major discontinuity. This being not enough, a cultural system entering such an unstable and historically brief period of major reshuffle is more often than not influenced by external factors of which climate change may be the most essential one. While the inner dynamics of a given system can be controlled to a limited extent, modified and tempered, external factors such as climate change (being the most significant one), are global variables that cannot be overridden, and consequently, have always led to political instability. What modern military organizations might consider is that long term trends in study of human populations, processes in nature, and the mechanisms of their change, together with the predictive potential inherent in this theory, are precisely those that can considerably increase security and stability, but may also have significant bearing on the efficacy of performance, and accuracy of military strategies.
to which the factors responsible for the rise of a particular civilisation or culture are usually the same as those which, in the end, instigate its crisis, meaning thus a quick and deep loss of its complexity, immediately usually followed by a stage of regeneration and a following rise. Next, there is a second observation – if we want to understand why a system is facing a real or apparent crisis, it would be a mistake to focus only on the imminent phase of the crisis. It is much more productive to concentrate on the stage during which the civilisation or culture was emerging. It is there, if the factors involved in its rise are identified, that we usually find the key to understanding the actual stage of the crisis.