Biologist, Wildlife Management Specialization, MSc. Biology, Zoology, Ornithology, Current PhD Student in Conservation Biology, Population dynamics of Lear's Macaw
This paper describes an outbreak of chytridiomycosis affecting a group of Dendrobates tinctorius,... more This paper describes an outbreak of chytridiomycosis affecting a group of Dendrobates tinctorius, a Neotropical anuran species, confiscated from the illegal wildlife trade and housed in a private zoo in Brazil as part of an ex situ breeding program. We examined histological sections of the skin of 30 D. tinctorius and 20 Adelphobates galactonotus individuals. Twenty D. tinctorius (66.7%) and none of the A. galactonotus were positive for Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). Multiple development stages of Bd infection were observed. The reasons for the interspecific difference in the rate of infection could not be determined, and further studies are advised. Because the examined population consisted of confiscated frogs, detailed epidemiological aspects could not be investigated, and the source of the fungus remains uncertain. The existence of ex situ amphibian populations is important for protecting species at higher risk in the wild, and ex situ amphibian conservation and breeding programs in Brazil may be established using confiscated frogs as founders. However, this paper alerts these programs to the urgency of strict quarantine procedures to prevent the introduction of potential pathogens, particularly Bd, into ex situ conservation programs.
Lear's Macaw Anodorhynchus leari is currently listed as "Endangered" by IUCN. Although it only br... more Lear's Macaw Anodorhynchus leari is currently listed as "Endangered" by IUCN. Although it only breeds on cliffs at two protected sites in Bahia State, Brazil, there is no accurate information on population parameters such as the number of breeding pairs and their breeding performance. Between 2009 and 2010, we sought to quantify, for the first time, breeding population size and the main breeding parameters for the species in the two known breeding sites, by quantifying the number of active nests and monitoring 75 breeding attempts. Overall, 80% of the breeding attempts were successful with 1.33 (± 0.86 SD) fledglings/breeding attempt (productivity) and 1.67 (± 0.60 SD) fledglings/ successful nest (brood size). Breeding success and productivity were higher in 2010, while brood size did not vary between years and breeding sites. By adding 73 estimated nests to the 41 nests monitored, 228 individuals were estimated to be reproductively active in 2010, representing c.20% of the population (1,125 individuals). Given that the species is confined to a single population, further population increases could provoke overcrowding and negative density-dependent effects if it does not expand geographically. Therefore, long-term population monitoring focusing on the fraction of the population that is actually breeding and its breeding performance, rather than solely on the whole population size, is important for a better understanding of the population dynamics and conservation of this species.
Despite the fact that parrots (Psitacifformes) are generalist apex frugivores, they have largely ... more Despite the fact that parrots (Psitacifformes) are generalist apex frugivores, they have largely been considered plant antagonists and thus neglected as seed dispersers of their food plants. Internal dispersal was investigated by searching for seeds in faeces opportunistically collected at communal roosts, foraging sites and nests of eleven parrot species in different habitats and biomes in the Neotropics. Multiple intact seeds of seven plant species of five families were found in a variable proportion of faeces from four parrot species. The mean number of seeds of each plant species per dropping ranged between one and about sixty, with a maximum of almost five hundred seeds from the cacti Pilosocereus pachycladus in a single dropping of Lear's Macaw (Anodorhynchus leari). All seeds retrieved were small (<3 mm) and corresponded to herbs and relatively large, multiple-seeded fleshy berries and infrutescences from shrubs, trees and columnar cacti, often also dispersed by stomatochory. An overview of the potential constraints driving seed dispersal suggest that, despite the obvious size difference between seeds dispersed by endozoochory and stomatochory, there is no clear difference in fruit size depending on the dispersal mode. Regardless of the enhanced or limited germination capability after gut transit, a relatively large proportion of cacti seeds frequently found in the faeces of two parrot species were viable according to the tetrazolium test and germination experiments. The conservative results of our exploratory sampling and a literature review clearly indicate that the importance of parrots as endozoochorous dispersers has been largely under-appreciated due to the lack of research systematically searching for seeds in their faeces. We encourage the evaluation of seed dispersal and other mutualistic interactions mediated by parrots before their generalized population declines contribute to the collapse of key ecosystem processes.
Parrots as overlooked seed dispersers S hortly after our friend and colleague Gary R Bortolotti p... more Parrots as overlooked seed dispersers S hortly after our friend and colleague Gary R Bortolotti passed away in 2011, his widow Heather Trueman sent JLT ten photographs of parrots that Gary had taken in Brazil. In one of these images, we saw a flying chestnut-fronted macaw (Ara severus) carrying in its beak a defleshed fruit of the motacú palm (Attalea phalerata; upper-right arrow in Figure 1); upon enlarging this picture for publication in Frontiers, we noticed another macaw transporting a smaller-sized seed (lower-left arrow in Figure 1). Gary's photograph had captured what has been described as an unusual behavior: active seed dispersal by parrots. The unexpected nature of this observation was reinforced during discussions with colleagues who specialize in avian frugivory and seed dispersal. As they argued-and contrary to well-recognized avian seed dis-persers such as frugivorous passerines, trogons, and tou-cans, which typically swallow whole fruits and disperse seeds after gut passage-parrots handle and destroy fruits in situ to eat the pulp or to gain access to the seeds. Although more than 400 known species of parrot inhabit the world's tropical ecosystems, only lesser vasa parrots (Coracopsis nigra; Böhning-Gaese et al. 1999) and plain parakeets (Brotogeris tirica; Sazima 2008) have previously been reported to regularly disperse seeds transported in their bills. This has led to the general assumption that parrots are seed predators and thus do not participate in seed-dispersal mutualisms (Fleming and Kress 2013). Because only two parrot species were known to routinely carry seeds in flight, this behavior is considered to be unusual. However, these two species are among the more ancestral (Coracopsis) and more modern (Brotogeris) species within the phylogenetic tree of the Psittacidae family of parrots (Wright et al. 2008), suggesting that this behavior could be well-conserved through the evolution and diversification of this large lineage of birds, but nonetheless overlooked. Parrots often forage in the canopy of tropical forests, and their foraging behaviors are difficult to study due to remote locations and logistical constraints. Thus, the likelihood of observing a parrot in flight carrying a fruit or seed in its bill may be low, and such behaviors may go largely unreported. A new photograph (Figure 2) taken by JLT, this time of a large flock of red-fronted macaws (Ara rubrogenys) in Bolivia, led us to reconsider this second hypothesis. In this case, the transport of an ear of corn (Zea mays) by a macaw went unseen until the photograph was examined more closely. We then decided to reassess the foraging behavior of parrots, searching for indications of other dispersal events. To that end, we joined a group of parrot biologists and ecologists studying foraging behavior who, since 2012, have recorded hundreds of observations of parrots dispersing fruits or seeds using their bills or, less often, their feet (WebFigure 1). Although preliminary, our data suggest that seed dispersal by parrots is not unusual. Observations came from 28 parrot species belonging to 16 genera, ranging in body size from the smallest parakeets to the largest macaws, and involved the dispersal of fruits and seeds from 94 species of trees (including palms) and shrubs. Instances were recorded in seven countries (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, and Spain), comprising mostly neotropical parrots but also an African and an Asian species from introduced populations of parrots in Spain. They covered a wide variety of ecosystems-from the sea-level Argentinean Pampas to high-altitude Andean forests, from continents to islands, from the wettest Amazonian savannas to the driest Caatinga forests, and from pristine to urban habitats. Regarding functional interactions, parrots-regardless of their origin-dispersed both native and non-native (includ-ing cultivated) plants. We measured the distances that fruits or seeds were carried by parrots , with the aid of laser rangefind-ers, in 686 dispersal events. Given the long-distance flying abilities of most parrot species, the distances spanned a wide range (maximum = 1200 m, median = 27 m, mean = 44 m; WebFigure 2). This indicates that parrots may serve as efficient long-distance seed dispersers. Moreover, we observed several incidents where transported fruits or seeds were acci-NATURAL HISTORY NOTES NATURAL HISTORY NOTES Figure 1. Chestnut-fronted macaws (Ara severus) transporting a defleshed motacú palm fruit (Attalea phalerata; upper-right arrow) and an unidentified seed (lower-left arrow).
This paper describes an outbreak of chytridiomycosis affecting a group of Dendrobates tinctorius,... more This paper describes an outbreak of chytridiomycosis affecting a group of Dendrobates tinctorius, a Neotropical anuran species, confiscated from the illegal wildlife trade and housed in a private zoo in Brazil as part of an ex situ breeding program. We examined histological sections of the skin of 30 D. tinctorius and 20 Adelphobates galactonotus individuals. Twenty D. tinctorius (66.7%) and none of the A. galactonotus were positive for Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). Multiple development stages of Bd infection were observed. The reasons for the interspecific difference in the rate of infection could not be determined, and further studies are advised. Because the examined population consisted of confiscated frogs, detailed epidemiological aspects could not be investigated, and the source of the fungus remains uncertain. The existence of ex situ amphibian populations is important for protecting species at higher risk in the wild, and ex situ amphibian conservation and breeding programs in Brazil may be established using confiscated frogs as founders. However, this paper alerts these programs to the urgency of strict quarantine procedures to prevent the introduction of potential pathogens, particularly Bd, into ex situ conservation programs.
Lear's Macaw Anodorhynchus leari is currently listed as "Endangered" by IUCN. Although it only br... more Lear's Macaw Anodorhynchus leari is currently listed as "Endangered" by IUCN. Although it only breeds on cliffs at two protected sites in Bahia State, Brazil, there is no accurate information on population parameters such as the number of breeding pairs and their breeding performance. Between 2009 and 2010, we sought to quantify, for the first time, breeding population size and the main breeding parameters for the species in the two known breeding sites, by quantifying the number of active nests and monitoring 75 breeding attempts. Overall, 80% of the breeding attempts were successful with 1.33 (± 0.86 SD) fledglings/breeding attempt (productivity) and 1.67 (± 0.60 SD) fledglings/ successful nest (brood size). Breeding success and productivity were higher in 2010, while brood size did not vary between years and breeding sites. By adding 73 estimated nests to the 41 nests monitored, 228 individuals were estimated to be reproductively active in 2010, representing c.20% of the population (1,125 individuals). Given that the species is confined to a single population, further population increases could provoke overcrowding and negative density-dependent effects if it does not expand geographically. Therefore, long-term population monitoring focusing on the fraction of the population that is actually breeding and its breeding performance, rather than solely on the whole population size, is important for a better understanding of the population dynamics and conservation of this species.
Despite the fact that parrots (Psitacifformes) are generalist apex frugivores, they have largely ... more Despite the fact that parrots (Psitacifformes) are generalist apex frugivores, they have largely been considered plant antagonists and thus neglected as seed dispersers of their food plants. Internal dispersal was investigated by searching for seeds in faeces opportunistically collected at communal roosts, foraging sites and nests of eleven parrot species in different habitats and biomes in the Neotropics. Multiple intact seeds of seven plant species of five families were found in a variable proportion of faeces from four parrot species. The mean number of seeds of each plant species per dropping ranged between one and about sixty, with a maximum of almost five hundred seeds from the cacti Pilosocereus pachycladus in a single dropping of Lear's Macaw (Anodorhynchus leari). All seeds retrieved were small (<3 mm) and corresponded to herbs and relatively large, multiple-seeded fleshy berries and infrutescences from shrubs, trees and columnar cacti, often also dispersed by stomatochory. An overview of the potential constraints driving seed dispersal suggest that, despite the obvious size difference between seeds dispersed by endozoochory and stomatochory, there is no clear difference in fruit size depending on the dispersal mode. Regardless of the enhanced or limited germination capability after gut transit, a relatively large proportion of cacti seeds frequently found in the faeces of two parrot species were viable according to the tetrazolium test and germination experiments. The conservative results of our exploratory sampling and a literature review clearly indicate that the importance of parrots as endozoochorous dispersers has been largely under-appreciated due to the lack of research systematically searching for seeds in their faeces. We encourage the evaluation of seed dispersal and other mutualistic interactions mediated by parrots before their generalized population declines contribute to the collapse of key ecosystem processes.
Parrots as overlooked seed dispersers S hortly after our friend and colleague Gary R Bortolotti p... more Parrots as overlooked seed dispersers S hortly after our friend and colleague Gary R Bortolotti passed away in 2011, his widow Heather Trueman sent JLT ten photographs of parrots that Gary had taken in Brazil. In one of these images, we saw a flying chestnut-fronted macaw (Ara severus) carrying in its beak a defleshed fruit of the motacú palm (Attalea phalerata; upper-right arrow in Figure 1); upon enlarging this picture for publication in Frontiers, we noticed another macaw transporting a smaller-sized seed (lower-left arrow in Figure 1). Gary's photograph had captured what has been described as an unusual behavior: active seed dispersal by parrots. The unexpected nature of this observation was reinforced during discussions with colleagues who specialize in avian frugivory and seed dispersal. As they argued-and contrary to well-recognized avian seed dis-persers such as frugivorous passerines, trogons, and tou-cans, which typically swallow whole fruits and disperse seeds after gut passage-parrots handle and destroy fruits in situ to eat the pulp or to gain access to the seeds. Although more than 400 known species of parrot inhabit the world's tropical ecosystems, only lesser vasa parrots (Coracopsis nigra; Böhning-Gaese et al. 1999) and plain parakeets (Brotogeris tirica; Sazima 2008) have previously been reported to regularly disperse seeds transported in their bills. This has led to the general assumption that parrots are seed predators and thus do not participate in seed-dispersal mutualisms (Fleming and Kress 2013). Because only two parrot species were known to routinely carry seeds in flight, this behavior is considered to be unusual. However, these two species are among the more ancestral (Coracopsis) and more modern (Brotogeris) species within the phylogenetic tree of the Psittacidae family of parrots (Wright et al. 2008), suggesting that this behavior could be well-conserved through the evolution and diversification of this large lineage of birds, but nonetheless overlooked. Parrots often forage in the canopy of tropical forests, and their foraging behaviors are difficult to study due to remote locations and logistical constraints. Thus, the likelihood of observing a parrot in flight carrying a fruit or seed in its bill may be low, and such behaviors may go largely unreported. A new photograph (Figure 2) taken by JLT, this time of a large flock of red-fronted macaws (Ara rubrogenys) in Bolivia, led us to reconsider this second hypothesis. In this case, the transport of an ear of corn (Zea mays) by a macaw went unseen until the photograph was examined more closely. We then decided to reassess the foraging behavior of parrots, searching for indications of other dispersal events. To that end, we joined a group of parrot biologists and ecologists studying foraging behavior who, since 2012, have recorded hundreds of observations of parrots dispersing fruits or seeds using their bills or, less often, their feet (WebFigure 1). Although preliminary, our data suggest that seed dispersal by parrots is not unusual. Observations came from 28 parrot species belonging to 16 genera, ranging in body size from the smallest parakeets to the largest macaws, and involved the dispersal of fruits and seeds from 94 species of trees (including palms) and shrubs. Instances were recorded in seven countries (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, and Spain), comprising mostly neotropical parrots but also an African and an Asian species from introduced populations of parrots in Spain. They covered a wide variety of ecosystems-from the sea-level Argentinean Pampas to high-altitude Andean forests, from continents to islands, from the wettest Amazonian savannas to the driest Caatinga forests, and from pristine to urban habitats. Regarding functional interactions, parrots-regardless of their origin-dispersed both native and non-native (includ-ing cultivated) plants. We measured the distances that fruits or seeds were carried by parrots , with the aid of laser rangefind-ers, in 686 dispersal events. Given the long-distance flying abilities of most parrot species, the distances spanned a wide range (maximum = 1200 m, median = 27 m, mean = 44 m; WebFigure 2). This indicates that parrots may serve as efficient long-distance seed dispersers. Moreover, we observed several incidents where transported fruits or seeds were acci-NATURAL HISTORY NOTES NATURAL HISTORY NOTES Figure 1. Chestnut-fronted macaws (Ara severus) transporting a defleshed motacú palm fruit (Attalea phalerata; upper-right arrow) and an unidentified seed (lower-left arrow).
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