School of Educational Studies

University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the School of Educational Studies I certify that I have read this document and approve it as adequate in scope and quality for the degree of Master of Arts. May 2010.

Children who interpret for their immigrant parents are referred to as language, brokers. The present study examines the relationship of language brokering to academic performance, biculturalism, academic self-efficacy, and social self-efficacy. The many adultlike experiences of children who broker on a regular basis suggest that their cognitive and Socioemotional development may be accelerated relative to children of immigrant families who broker infrequently or not at all. Latino adolescents (n = 122) from immigrant families were participants in the study. Results showed that, as expected, language brokering was positively related to biculturalism, and in turn, both of these variables were positively related to academic performance. In addition, the strongest predictor of academic performance was academic self-efficacy. Results also indicated that, to some degree, language brokering is a gendered activity, with females reporting more brokering than males.

This study examined the academic resilience of undocumented immigrant Latino students. It was hypothesized that due to their legal and social marginalization, students who experienced high risk accompanied by high levels of both personal and environmental protective factors would have higher academic outcomes than students with lower levels of these protective resources. The results from regression and cluster analyses (N = 104) indicated that despite specific risk factors (e.g., elevated feelings of societal rejection, low parental education, and high employment hours during school) undocumented students who have high levels of personal and environmental protective factors (e.g., supportive parents, friends, and participation in school activities) report higher levels of academic success than students with similar risk factors and lower levels of personal and environmental resources. The results also suggested variability in risk exposure among undocumented students with some students reporting low levels of risk accompanied by high levels of personal and environmental protective factors.

Some educational researchers have proposed that immigrant adolescents a "Dual Frame of Reference" (DFR) that facilitates their educational achievement. In this dissertation, previous conceptualizations of DFR were further defined and operationalized using psychological theories. DFR was defined as a process of social comparisons by which immigrants compare their life outcomes and opportunities for economic, social, and educational advancement with those in their country of origin as a result of a prolonged period of uncertainty created by the process of migration. Comparisons occur with those that they see as most similar to themselves; family, peers, and friends in their country of origin. A series of three studies were conducted to understand the psychosocial processes associated with academic achievement by examining the relationship between DFR and achievement among Mexican-heritage adolescents from immigrant households. The research questions guiding this dissertation were the following: (1) Do adolescents from immigrant households have a DFR and (2) Is there a relationship between DFR and academic achievement? Qualitative results from Study 1 (N = 40) suggest that although adolescents from immigrant households have varying degrees of DFR, it does not seem to be associated with achievement. Study 2 (N = 96 for Sample 1 and N = 282 for Sample 2)sought to empirically test and validate a survey measure of DFR. The resulting 15-item measure of DFR exhibited acceptable internal reliability and validity. Factor analyses revealed a three factor structure: A (1) Preference for Mexico subscale, an (2) Immigrant Optimism subscale, and an (3) American Peer Comparison subscale. Using variable-centered and person-centered analytic procedures, Study 3 (N = 345) examined the relationship between Immigrant Optimism and achievement using a series of mediated regression models. Results indicated that Immigrant Optimism did not mediate the relationship between generational level and academic engagement and it did not predict academic achievement. Family Obligation was found to be a better mediator and predictor of academic achievement. Overall, results from this dissertation suggest that the DFR is not a useful construct in understanding the academic achievement patterns of adolescents from immigrant households. Findings from the present set of studies provide empirical evidence for the role of psychosocial factors on achievement and help to further the development of theories addressing immigrant and minority student achievement.

My research shows that college-eligible undocumented students exhibit high levels of academic achievement, civic engagement and resilience. Many overcome academic and socio-emotional barriers through social and moral support from family, peers, school agents and academic programs. As a result of the state residency tuition eligibility across the 10 states where most undocumented students reside, more than ever, community colleges and public universities are serving an important role in educating low-income, undocumented students. This article provides several research-informed suggestions for counseling professionals on how to best support higher education access for undocumented students.

The authors adapt the segmented assimilation theory to a model of population health, which posits that assimilation is actually harmful to migrants’ health. The authors also specify models of individual and contextual factors to indirectly test the theory of segmented assimilation—a theory that posits interactions between individual and residential circumstances. Using Year 2000 vital statistics data merged with 2000 U.S. census data from Los Angeles County, the authors model the probability of being born low birth weight among the native and foreign born. Results confirm an immigrant advantage at the individual level and protective effects of immigrant coresidence at the neighborhood level.

This paper examines the pedagogical challenges involved in using formal/structured instructional settings to maintain heritage languages (minority, immigrant, and indigenous languages). It uses the case of Spanish to describe the multiple tensions surrounding the teaching of non-societal languages as part of established high-school and university programs originally intended for traditional foreign-language learners. First, it presents the results of a survey of instructional practices used in the teaching of Spanish to heritage students in California in secondary and postsecondary institutions. It then discusses some of the challenges and tensions surrounding the teaching of heritage languages revealed by the survey and proposes a research agenda that can guide our understanding of the linguistic characteristics of heritage learners and of the role of instruction in the development/re-acquisition of non-dominant L1's.

Based on my research, I argue that undocumented students' civic and academic dedication warrants official government recognition. The federal government can support and encourage civic commitments by rewarding model behavior with legislation that provides a path to legalization. Over the last decade, citizenship policy has emerged as an increasingly important topic of concern for policy makers, scholars, the media, and immigrant communities. Questions of citizenship have become a major source of political controversy in debates about topics ranging from welfare rights to multiculturalism. The increase of scholarly literature on citizenship and immigrant integration emanating from the academy in recent years suggests that a widespread reevaluation of citizenship questions has already begun.

Over the last 30 years, ineffective immigration policies as well as economic factors have led to an increase in the undocumented population in the United States to approximately 11.2 million as of 2011. The undocumented population includes approximately 3.2 million children and young adults under the age of 24 that were brought to the U.S. by their parents when they were very young, often before schooling age. Beginning 1975, various school districts across the country tried to bar undocumented children from attending public schools. In 1982, the Supreme Court ruled in the case of Plyler v. Doe that undocumented children must be provided access to a public education. Presently, however, court-mandated equal access to education ends for approximately 65,000 to 80,000 undocumented students every year when they graduate from high school. This entry reviews the research on higher education access for undocumented students.

In this chapter, we highlight some of the most significant challenges undocumented students face to provide educators with concrete strategies to best support this marginalized, and often overlooked, student population. We propose that educators actively commit themselves to becoming undocumented student allies. Being an ally can be rewarding, but it also has its challenges and heartbreaks.