A novel phenomenographic approach was used to examine how elite coaches conceptualise good decisi... more A novel phenomenographic approach was used to examine how elite coaches conceptualise good decision-making and its development in football: An iterative analysis of participants' interviews revealed conceptions of decision-making ranging from simple and narrow to more sophisticated and holistic. In the narrower conceptions, coaches viewed decision-making as a collection of judgments leading to given outcomes that could be correct/incorrect. More holistic conceptions of decisionmaking reflected several sources of complexity arising from various contingencies within the game (e.g., team dynamics). Participants’ conceptions of good decision-makers reflected the broadening range of abilities required of players. In the most elaborate conceptions, participants conceived of players as having to predict what happens next, based on their knowledge, as well as having to collaborate with teammates when on-the-ball and off-the-ball, within an ever-changing environment. Participants highlighted their conceptions of how decision-making may be developed, emphasising the importance of: playing with others; effective communication; balancing structure and autonomy; knowledgeable inspiration from other players and coaches; and a focus on improvement rather than winning. In future, research is needed to better understand how a coach’s conceptualisation of decision-making impacts on his/her ability to create effective environments to promote skill development in players.
Decision-making is fundamental to officiating in all sports. It is well established in contempora... more Decision-making is fundamental to officiating in all sports. It is well established in contemporary research that decision-making skills underpin umpire expertise; however, there is little understanding of the cognitive processes that contribute to in-game decision-making. This research implemented an in-depth case study approach, using qualitative methods, to explore the in-game decision-making process of three Australian football umpires. Concurrent and retrospective verbalisation methods were used to obtain verbal reports of the cognitive processes associated with decision-making. Findings identified three salient themes related to both in-game decision-making processes (i.e., decision evaluation, player intention during game-play) and umpire performance (i.e., knowledge of game-play). These themes contributed to the development of decision-making heuristics for Australian football umpires. This study provides initial evidence of the factors that may contribute to and/or affect in-game decision-making processes; however, additional exploration is necessary to further inform training programs aimed to develop domain-specific decision-making skills and subsequent in-game performance.
There remains limited understanding of the processes and factors which contribute to young footba... more There remains limited understanding of the processes and factors which contribute to young footballers being identified as talented. Talent identification is imperative for the development of future elite performers, though most studies conflate talent identification and talent development. Moreover, within the literature there is a lack of operational or procedural distinction for talent identification, causing issues for those researching and working within applied contexts. This paper sought to clarify issues related to talent identification in junior-elite football, offering a review of the extant literature and proposing future directions for applied research. There are unanswered questions associated with how scouts, recruitment staff, and coaches decide what constitutes talent and the importance placed on particular attributes during that process. We suggest that further research into the ascribed processes, observations, and perceptions of those involved in talent identification are needed to provide more sound understanding of the talent identification process in football.
Using the modified Delphi method, we aimed to understand the attributes youth coaches and recruit... more Using the modified Delphi method, we aimed to understand the attributes youth coaches and recruiters perceive as important when identifying skilled youth performance at the entry level of representative soccer in Australia (i.e., Under 13 years). Furthermore, we also aimed to describe the current methods youth coaches and recruiters use to assess and identify these attributes in youth players. Australian regional youth technical directors and coaches (n = 20) completed a three stage process, including an initial interview and two subsequent questionnaires, whereby attributes and qualities associated with talent identification were rated and justified according to the importance for youth player performance and talent identification. Results indicate a hierarchy of attributes recruiters perceive as important for Under 13 soccer performance, including technical (i.e., first touch, striking the ball, one-versus one ability, and technical ability under pressure), tactical (i.e., decision-making ability) and psychological attributes (i.e., coachability and positive attitude). In addition, the findings indicated attributes and qualities not emphasised within the talent identification process including, physiological, anthropometrical, sociological and several psychological attributes. It is suggested talent recruiters apply a holistic multidisciplinary approach to talent identification , with the current findings potentially providing initial evidence to suggest recruiters do consider numerous attributes when selecting and identifying youth players.
Decision-making is a central component of the in-game performance of Australian football umpires;... more Decision-making is a central component of the in-game performance of Australian football umpires; however, current umpire training focuses largely on physiological development with decision-making skills development conducted via explicit lecture-style meetings with limited practice devoted to making actual decisions. Therefore, this study investigated the efficacy of a video-based training programme, aimed to provide a greater amount of contextualised visual experiences without explicit instruction, to improve decision-making skills of umpires. Australian football umpires (n = 52) were recruited from metropolitan and regional Division 1 competitions. Participants were randomly assigned to an intervention or control group and classified according to previous umpire game experience (i.e., experienced; less experienced). The intervention group completed a 12-week video-based decision-making training programme, with decision-making performance assessed at pre-training, and 1-week retention and 3-week retention periods. The control group did not complete any video-based training. Results indicated a significant Group (intervention; Control) × Test interaction (F(1, 100) = 3.98; P = 0.02, partial ῆ2 = 0.074), with follow-up pairwise comparisons indicating significant within-group differences over time for the intervention group. In addition, decision-making performance of the less experienced umpires in the intervention group significantly improved (F(2, 40) = 5.03, P = 0.01, partial ῆ2 = 0.201). Thus, video-based training programmes may be a viable adjunct to current training programmes to hasten decision-making development, especially for less experienced umpires.
Given the many benefits of international sporting success understanding the development and long-... more Given the many benefits of international sporting success understanding the development and long-term sustainability of an elite sporting career have become an important pursuit worldwide. Despite decades of research little is known about the development of elite senior Australian Track and Field athletes, therefore this study aimed to understand the major influences contributing to their development and success. A Track and Field Athlete Development questionnaire was used to collect data from 73 Olympic and World Championship level athletes. Analysis indicated athletes progressed to the elite level via six different pathways; however, the majority follows a linear pathway from junior to elite senior athlete. Further, results demonstrated the key influencing factors during development included later specialization, involvement in other sports during adolescence and strong social support. In addition, growing up in a major city and completing a University degree were also common features. Overall the study provides an insight into the development and success of Australian Track and Field athletes who competed at the Olympic Games or World Championships between 1956 and 2013.
Background: Decision-making is a key component of performance in sport. However, there has been m... more Background: Decision-making is a key component of performance in sport. However, there has been minimal investigation of how coaches may adapt practice sessions to specifically develop decision-making.
Purpose: The aim in this exploratory study was to investigate the pedagogical approaches coaches use to develop decision-making in soccer.
Method: Youth soccer coaches (n = 29) currently coaching youth teams (U11–U17) in Australia were filmed conducting two practice sessions. The first session was a regular training session, whereas in the second session, participants were asked to create an activity they believed would promote the development of on-ball decision-making. Systematic observation of the learning and teaching (LandT) component of each session was undertaken to provide a detailed analysis of the coach behaviours and practice activities in which they had players engage. During this activity, the number of on-ball actions was measured to reflect the associated decision-making opportunities. Coaches indicated how they believed decision-making is developed in players, the strategies they would employ to improve decision-making, the perceived success of the activity (i.e. did they achieve their aims), and modifications they would make if conducting the activity again.
Data analysis: To assess differences between the regular training LandT activity and decision-making-specific LandT activity, coach behaviours, and on-ball actions, a Mann–Whitney U test was conducted. Coach perceptions were deductively analysed to identify main themes.
Findings: Participants identified three main strategies for incorporating decision-making into training activity – repetition of real scenarios with guided discovery, prompting decision-making by providing cues or solutions, and manipulating the game/activity. There were no differences in the frequency, average duration, or the percentage of allocated time for any of the practice activity variables (i.e. Playing Form; Training Form; Inactivity), coach behaviours (instructions; questions; management) or the number of on-ball decisions per minute between the regular activity and decision-making-specific activity (p > .05). Descriptive statistics indicated the coaching practice was stop-start in nature for coaches to instruct or ask questions.
Conclusions: Participants generally use strategies which may promote decision-making opportunities for players such as the use of questioning, constraints-led pedagogy, and Playing Form rather than Training Form activities. However, findings provide evidence to suggest the participants over-coach, with high amounts of instruction and a very stop-start nature to the activity. This coaching practice potentially limits the problem-solving and decision-making demands on players.
Coaches, fans and the media identify successful football performance as finishing as high in the ... more Coaches, fans and the media identify successful football performance as finishing as high in the league as possible. Recently, research has indicated that possession, shots at goal, and goals scored are key performance indicators for successful football teams.
We used systematic observation tools to explore the structure (i.e., activity and inactivity) and... more We used systematic observation tools to explore the structure (i.e., activity and inactivity) and sequencing (i.e., the types of activities used) of football coaching sessions in Australia following the implementation of a new National Curriculum. Youth soccer coaches (n = 34), coaching within the Skill Acquisition (U11-U13 n = 19) and Game Training (U14-U17 n = 15) phases of the Football Federation Australia (FFA) National Curriculum, participated. Participants were filmed during a regular coaching session, with systematic observation of the session undertaken to provide a detailed analysis of the practice activities and coach behaviours. Findings indicated a session comprised of Playing Form activities (40.9%), Training Form activities (22.3%), inactivity (31%), and transitions between activities (5.8%). Coaches prescribed more Training Form activities (e.g., individual (5.4%) and drills (15.1%)) early in the session and progressed to Playing Form activities (i.e., small sided games (15.3%) then larger games (24.8%)) later in the session. Most inactivity reflected the players listening to the coach – either in a team huddle (9.9%) or frozen on the spot during an activity (16.5%). In addition, coaches generally spent over 3 minutes communicating to players prior to explaining and introducing an activity regardless of when in the session the activity was scheduled.
Soccer performance analysis instruments generally provide a description of skill outcomes; howeve... more Soccer performance analysis instruments generally provide a description of skill outcomes; however, there is limited understanding of the individual movements and skills that lead to an outcome such as a pass. We used a four step process to develop a valid and reliable instrument designed to assess movement awareness and technical skills (MATS) performed by soccer players when in possession of the ball. The first step was the establishment of performance indicators and operational definitions, followed by extensive pilot testing and observer training. The third step established face validity aligning Football Federation Australia's national curriculum and the technical performance outcomes; and content validity was ensured by verification and critical feedback from an expert panel. Finally, reliability was established with high inter-coder (Kappa value >0.40; and Cronbach's α = 0.98) and intra-coder reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.83). From a practical perspective, the new soccer performance analysis instrument provides detailed information relating to player movement patterns, technical skill proficiency and skill breakdown. The data obtained coupled with reflective coaching practices may inform player feedback and future coaching strategies to develop player movement and technical skills.
We identified the perceptual–cognitive skills and player history variables that differentiate pla... more We identified the perceptual–cognitive skills and player history variables that differentiate players selected or not selected into an elite youth football (i.e. soccer) programme in Australia. A sample of elite youth male football players (n = 127) completed an adapted participation history questionnaire and video-based assessments of perceptual–cognitive skills. Following data collection, 22 of these players were offered a full-time scholarship for enrolment at an elite player residential programme. Participants selected for the scholarship programme recorded superior performance on the combined perceptual–cognitive skills tests compared to the non-selected group. There were no significant between group differences on the player history variables. Stepwise discriminant function analysis identified four predictor variables that resulted in the best categorization of selected and non-selected players (i.e. recent match-play performance, region, number of other sports participated, combined perceptual–cognitive performance). The effectiveness of the discriminant function is reflected by 93.7% of players being correctly classified, with the four variables accounting for 57.6% of the variance. Our discriminating model for selection may provide a greater understanding of the factors that influence elite youth talent selection and identification.
In this review we identified sport-based perceptual-cognitive training literature to systematical... more In this review we identified sport-based perceptual-cognitive training literature to systematically evaluate current video-based methodologies and their resultant effectiveness to improve perceptual-cognitive performance (i.e., decision-making). A comprehensive literature search of electronic databases from 1994-2013 was conducted to identify relevant studies. We identified 139 articles, of which 25 met all the inclusion criteria. Study design and test measures of the 25 articles were assessed against a classification scale to rate methodological quality. The methodological quality of the 25 studies varied, with quasi-experimental the most common design. Additionally, studies varied in the skill level of participants and the amount of video-based information presented during the training. We conclude that video based training programs can be used to enhance perceptual-cognitive performance and outline several recommendations for future video-based perceptual-cognitive training programs particularly with respect to the validity and reliability of the instruments used to measure perceptual-cognitive performance.
It is acknowledged that the time invested in sport-specific activities contributes to higher leve... more It is acknowledged that the time invested in sport-specific activities contributes to higher levels of performance. However, there is limited understanding of the potential impact of personality traits, such as perfectionism, on engagement in sport-specific activities. In the current study, we examine whether elite youth soccer players who demonstrate higher and lower levels of perfectionistic strivings tendencies can be differentiated based on their sport-specific engagement. The Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale 2 and an adapted Player History Questionnaire were completed by 419 elite youth male soccer players competing at the Australian age-related national youth championships (under 13, n = 133; under 14, n = 166; under 15, n = 120). A quartile split approach was used to separate higher (n = 100) and lower (n = 107) perfectionistic strivings groups. Findings revealed the higher perfectionistic strivings group accumulated more time in sport-specific activities, including coach-led practice, individual practice, peer-led play and indirect involvement in soccer when compared to individuals with lower perfectionistic strivings tendencies. Descriptive analysis indicates this equates to approximately 159 h a year (i.e. 17 h coach-led practice, 22 h individual practice, 60 h of peer-led play and 60 h of indirect involvement) more than the lower perfectionistic strivings group. In summary, the results suggest players with varying levels of perfectionistic strivings may be differentiated based on their engagement in soccer-specific activity in a sample of elite youth players in Australia, and suggests that perfectionistic strivings may have an adaptive influence on sport-specific engagement.
Decision-making is a key component of an umpire’s in-game performance, with each decision potenti... more Decision-making is a key component of an umpire’s in-game performance, with each decision potentially having a direct impact on the result of the game. Additionally, umpires have to be physically fit to ensure they keep up with the game-play. While research has identified the decision-making demands and running demands of umpires separately, few have explored the relationship between them. The aim of this investigation was to examine the relationship between physical exertion and decision-making performance of Australian Football umpires at the sub-elite and junior levels. A total of 18 Australian Football umpires (Sub-elite, n = 10; Junior n = 8) performed 10 x 300 metre runs, with each repetition immediately followed by a video-based decision-making test then 1 minute of recovery. A Mann-Whitney U assessment indicated a significant difference between the sub-elite and junior level umpires for decision-making accuracy (U = 13.00, z = -2.43, p = 0.016, r = -0.5). However, there was no significant difference in response time (U = 28.00, z = -1.07, p = 0.315, r = -0.25). The sub-elite umpires completed the running efforts in significantly less time than the junior umpires (p < 0.05). Further, there was no significant correlation between decision-making performance and running times for either skill level (p > 0.05). This suggests decision-making performance may not be affected by physical exertion. Therefore, it may be suggested coaches of football umpires allocate more time to the decision-making development of their umpires instead of focusing largely on the physical fitness side, as is currently the trend.
We examined whether soccer players who score low and high on the personality trait grit can be di... more We examined whether soccer players who score low and high on the personality trait grit can be differentiated based on their sport-specific engagement and perceptual-cognitive expertise. Findings revealed that grittier players accumulated significantly more time in sport-specific activities including competition, training, play, and indirect involvement. Moreover, there was a significant main effect for performance on the perceptual-cognitive skills tests across groups, with grittier players performing better than less gritty players on the assessments of decision-making and situational probability. The findings are the first to demonstrate a potential link between grit, sport-specific engagement and perceptual-cognitive expertise.
Objectives: Researchers have identified that pre-performance routines improve performance under p... more Objectives: Researchers have identified that pre-performance routines improve performance under pressure, yet have not investigated the effects of post-performance routines. Thus, the purpose of the current study was to examine whether the type of performance routine training could improve tenpin bowling accuracy and in-game performance. Design: A mixed-method design was adopted, whereby the impact of a performance routine intervention on performance accuracy and in-game performance was examined. This was followed by participants completing semi-structured interviews which explored the perceived effect of those routines. Method: Thirty-six experienced tenpin bowlers completed 30 accuracy shots pre-and post-intervention training, with league scores obtained for in-game performance comparison. Four groups (i.e., preperformance routine [PPR], post-performance routine [POST], combined pre-post routine, and a control group) practiced 12 games across four weeks while listening to the group specific routine instruction on an IPod. Results: It was noted that accuracy improved (albeit non-significantly) for the PPR and combined prepost routine group, but not the other groups. Critically, all intervention groups (PPR, POST & COMBO) improved in-game performance. The qualitative data indicated that both the PPR and POST was perceived to influence positively performance, attentional and emotional control, self-awareness, selfconfidence, motivation. The PPR was also considered to enhance a state of readiness, and perceived control. Conclusions: Results indicate that the PPR training enhanced accuracy and in-game performance, with the POST training acting as a supportive role for in-game performance as evidenced by the qualitative and quantitative data. Future research should continue to investigate the effects of POSTs.
A novel phenomenographic approach was used to examine how elite coaches conceptualise good decisi... more A novel phenomenographic approach was used to examine how elite coaches conceptualise good decision-making and its development in football: An iterative analysis of participants' interviews revealed conceptions of decision-making ranging from simple and narrow to more sophisticated and holistic. In the narrower conceptions, coaches viewed decision-making as a collection of judgments leading to given outcomes that could be correct/incorrect. More holistic conceptions of decisionmaking reflected several sources of complexity arising from various contingencies within the game (e.g., team dynamics). Participants’ conceptions of good decision-makers reflected the broadening range of abilities required of players. In the most elaborate conceptions, participants conceived of players as having to predict what happens next, based on their knowledge, as well as having to collaborate with teammates when on-the-ball and off-the-ball, within an ever-changing environment. Participants highlighted their conceptions of how decision-making may be developed, emphasising the importance of: playing with others; effective communication; balancing structure and autonomy; knowledgeable inspiration from other players and coaches; and a focus on improvement rather than winning. In future, research is needed to better understand how a coach’s conceptualisation of decision-making impacts on his/her ability to create effective environments to promote skill development in players.
Decision-making is fundamental to officiating in all sports. It is well established in contempora... more Decision-making is fundamental to officiating in all sports. It is well established in contemporary research that decision-making skills underpin umpire expertise; however, there is little understanding of the cognitive processes that contribute to in-game decision-making. This research implemented an in-depth case study approach, using qualitative methods, to explore the in-game decision-making process of three Australian football umpires. Concurrent and retrospective verbalisation methods were used to obtain verbal reports of the cognitive processes associated with decision-making. Findings identified three salient themes related to both in-game decision-making processes (i.e., decision evaluation, player intention during game-play) and umpire performance (i.e., knowledge of game-play). These themes contributed to the development of decision-making heuristics for Australian football umpires. This study provides initial evidence of the factors that may contribute to and/or affect in-game decision-making processes; however, additional exploration is necessary to further inform training programs aimed to develop domain-specific decision-making skills and subsequent in-game performance.
There remains limited understanding of the processes and factors which contribute to young footba... more There remains limited understanding of the processes and factors which contribute to young footballers being identified as talented. Talent identification is imperative for the development of future elite performers, though most studies conflate talent identification and talent development. Moreover, within the literature there is a lack of operational or procedural distinction for talent identification, causing issues for those researching and working within applied contexts. This paper sought to clarify issues related to talent identification in junior-elite football, offering a review of the extant literature and proposing future directions for applied research. There are unanswered questions associated with how scouts, recruitment staff, and coaches decide what constitutes talent and the importance placed on particular attributes during that process. We suggest that further research into the ascribed processes, observations, and perceptions of those involved in talent identification are needed to provide more sound understanding of the talent identification process in football.
Using the modified Delphi method, we aimed to understand the attributes youth coaches and recruit... more Using the modified Delphi method, we aimed to understand the attributes youth coaches and recruiters perceive as important when identifying skilled youth performance at the entry level of representative soccer in Australia (i.e., Under 13 years). Furthermore, we also aimed to describe the current methods youth coaches and recruiters use to assess and identify these attributes in youth players. Australian regional youth technical directors and coaches (n = 20) completed a three stage process, including an initial interview and two subsequent questionnaires, whereby attributes and qualities associated with talent identification were rated and justified according to the importance for youth player performance and talent identification. Results indicate a hierarchy of attributes recruiters perceive as important for Under 13 soccer performance, including technical (i.e., first touch, striking the ball, one-versus one ability, and technical ability under pressure), tactical (i.e., decision-making ability) and psychological attributes (i.e., coachability and positive attitude). In addition, the findings indicated attributes and qualities not emphasised within the talent identification process including, physiological, anthropometrical, sociological and several psychological attributes. It is suggested talent recruiters apply a holistic multidisciplinary approach to talent identification , with the current findings potentially providing initial evidence to suggest recruiters do consider numerous attributes when selecting and identifying youth players.
Decision-making is a central component of the in-game performance of Australian football umpires;... more Decision-making is a central component of the in-game performance of Australian football umpires; however, current umpire training focuses largely on physiological development with decision-making skills development conducted via explicit lecture-style meetings with limited practice devoted to making actual decisions. Therefore, this study investigated the efficacy of a video-based training programme, aimed to provide a greater amount of contextualised visual experiences without explicit instruction, to improve decision-making skills of umpires. Australian football umpires (n = 52) were recruited from metropolitan and regional Division 1 competitions. Participants were randomly assigned to an intervention or control group and classified according to previous umpire game experience (i.e., experienced; less experienced). The intervention group completed a 12-week video-based decision-making training programme, with decision-making performance assessed at pre-training, and 1-week retention and 3-week retention periods. The control group did not complete any video-based training. Results indicated a significant Group (intervention; Control) × Test interaction (F(1, 100) = 3.98; P = 0.02, partial ῆ2 = 0.074), with follow-up pairwise comparisons indicating significant within-group differences over time for the intervention group. In addition, decision-making performance of the less experienced umpires in the intervention group significantly improved (F(2, 40) = 5.03, P = 0.01, partial ῆ2 = 0.201). Thus, video-based training programmes may be a viable adjunct to current training programmes to hasten decision-making development, especially for less experienced umpires.
Given the many benefits of international sporting success understanding the development and long-... more Given the many benefits of international sporting success understanding the development and long-term sustainability of an elite sporting career have become an important pursuit worldwide. Despite decades of research little is known about the development of elite senior Australian Track and Field athletes, therefore this study aimed to understand the major influences contributing to their development and success. A Track and Field Athlete Development questionnaire was used to collect data from 73 Olympic and World Championship level athletes. Analysis indicated athletes progressed to the elite level via six different pathways; however, the majority follows a linear pathway from junior to elite senior athlete. Further, results demonstrated the key influencing factors during development included later specialization, involvement in other sports during adolescence and strong social support. In addition, growing up in a major city and completing a University degree were also common features. Overall the study provides an insight into the development and success of Australian Track and Field athletes who competed at the Olympic Games or World Championships between 1956 and 2013.
Background: Decision-making is a key component of performance in sport. However, there has been m... more Background: Decision-making is a key component of performance in sport. However, there has been minimal investigation of how coaches may adapt practice sessions to specifically develop decision-making.
Purpose: The aim in this exploratory study was to investigate the pedagogical approaches coaches use to develop decision-making in soccer.
Method: Youth soccer coaches (n = 29) currently coaching youth teams (U11–U17) in Australia were filmed conducting two practice sessions. The first session was a regular training session, whereas in the second session, participants were asked to create an activity they believed would promote the development of on-ball decision-making. Systematic observation of the learning and teaching (LandT) component of each session was undertaken to provide a detailed analysis of the coach behaviours and practice activities in which they had players engage. During this activity, the number of on-ball actions was measured to reflect the associated decision-making opportunities. Coaches indicated how they believed decision-making is developed in players, the strategies they would employ to improve decision-making, the perceived success of the activity (i.e. did they achieve their aims), and modifications they would make if conducting the activity again.
Data analysis: To assess differences between the regular training LandT activity and decision-making-specific LandT activity, coach behaviours, and on-ball actions, a Mann–Whitney U test was conducted. Coach perceptions were deductively analysed to identify main themes.
Findings: Participants identified three main strategies for incorporating decision-making into training activity – repetition of real scenarios with guided discovery, prompting decision-making by providing cues or solutions, and manipulating the game/activity. There were no differences in the frequency, average duration, or the percentage of allocated time for any of the practice activity variables (i.e. Playing Form; Training Form; Inactivity), coach behaviours (instructions; questions; management) or the number of on-ball decisions per minute between the regular activity and decision-making-specific activity (p > .05). Descriptive statistics indicated the coaching practice was stop-start in nature for coaches to instruct or ask questions.
Conclusions: Participants generally use strategies which may promote decision-making opportunities for players such as the use of questioning, constraints-led pedagogy, and Playing Form rather than Training Form activities. However, findings provide evidence to suggest the participants over-coach, with high amounts of instruction and a very stop-start nature to the activity. This coaching practice potentially limits the problem-solving and decision-making demands on players.
Coaches, fans and the media identify successful football performance as finishing as high in the ... more Coaches, fans and the media identify successful football performance as finishing as high in the league as possible. Recently, research has indicated that possession, shots at goal, and goals scored are key performance indicators for successful football teams.
We used systematic observation tools to explore the structure (i.e., activity and inactivity) and... more We used systematic observation tools to explore the structure (i.e., activity and inactivity) and sequencing (i.e., the types of activities used) of football coaching sessions in Australia following the implementation of a new National Curriculum. Youth soccer coaches (n = 34), coaching within the Skill Acquisition (U11-U13 n = 19) and Game Training (U14-U17 n = 15) phases of the Football Federation Australia (FFA) National Curriculum, participated. Participants were filmed during a regular coaching session, with systematic observation of the session undertaken to provide a detailed analysis of the practice activities and coach behaviours. Findings indicated a session comprised of Playing Form activities (40.9%), Training Form activities (22.3%), inactivity (31%), and transitions between activities (5.8%). Coaches prescribed more Training Form activities (e.g., individual (5.4%) and drills (15.1%)) early in the session and progressed to Playing Form activities (i.e., small sided games (15.3%) then larger games (24.8%)) later in the session. Most inactivity reflected the players listening to the coach – either in a team huddle (9.9%) or frozen on the spot during an activity (16.5%). In addition, coaches generally spent over 3 minutes communicating to players prior to explaining and introducing an activity regardless of when in the session the activity was scheduled.
Soccer performance analysis instruments generally provide a description of skill outcomes; howeve... more Soccer performance analysis instruments generally provide a description of skill outcomes; however, there is limited understanding of the individual movements and skills that lead to an outcome such as a pass. We used a four step process to develop a valid and reliable instrument designed to assess movement awareness and technical skills (MATS) performed by soccer players when in possession of the ball. The first step was the establishment of performance indicators and operational definitions, followed by extensive pilot testing and observer training. The third step established face validity aligning Football Federation Australia's national curriculum and the technical performance outcomes; and content validity was ensured by verification and critical feedback from an expert panel. Finally, reliability was established with high inter-coder (Kappa value >0.40; and Cronbach's α = 0.98) and intra-coder reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.83). From a practical perspective, the new soccer performance analysis instrument provides detailed information relating to player movement patterns, technical skill proficiency and skill breakdown. The data obtained coupled with reflective coaching practices may inform player feedback and future coaching strategies to develop player movement and technical skills.
We identified the perceptual–cognitive skills and player history variables that differentiate pla... more We identified the perceptual–cognitive skills and player history variables that differentiate players selected or not selected into an elite youth football (i.e. soccer) programme in Australia. A sample of elite youth male football players (n = 127) completed an adapted participation history questionnaire and video-based assessments of perceptual–cognitive skills. Following data collection, 22 of these players were offered a full-time scholarship for enrolment at an elite player residential programme. Participants selected for the scholarship programme recorded superior performance on the combined perceptual–cognitive skills tests compared to the non-selected group. There were no significant between group differences on the player history variables. Stepwise discriminant function analysis identified four predictor variables that resulted in the best categorization of selected and non-selected players (i.e. recent match-play performance, region, number of other sports participated, combined perceptual–cognitive performance). The effectiveness of the discriminant function is reflected by 93.7% of players being correctly classified, with the four variables accounting for 57.6% of the variance. Our discriminating model for selection may provide a greater understanding of the factors that influence elite youth talent selection and identification.
In this review we identified sport-based perceptual-cognitive training literature to systematical... more In this review we identified sport-based perceptual-cognitive training literature to systematically evaluate current video-based methodologies and their resultant effectiveness to improve perceptual-cognitive performance (i.e., decision-making). A comprehensive literature search of electronic databases from 1994-2013 was conducted to identify relevant studies. We identified 139 articles, of which 25 met all the inclusion criteria. Study design and test measures of the 25 articles were assessed against a classification scale to rate methodological quality. The methodological quality of the 25 studies varied, with quasi-experimental the most common design. Additionally, studies varied in the skill level of participants and the amount of video-based information presented during the training. We conclude that video based training programs can be used to enhance perceptual-cognitive performance and outline several recommendations for future video-based perceptual-cognitive training programs particularly with respect to the validity and reliability of the instruments used to measure perceptual-cognitive performance.
It is acknowledged that the time invested in sport-specific activities contributes to higher leve... more It is acknowledged that the time invested in sport-specific activities contributes to higher levels of performance. However, there is limited understanding of the potential impact of personality traits, such as perfectionism, on engagement in sport-specific activities. In the current study, we examine whether elite youth soccer players who demonstrate higher and lower levels of perfectionistic strivings tendencies can be differentiated based on their sport-specific engagement. The Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale 2 and an adapted Player History Questionnaire were completed by 419 elite youth male soccer players competing at the Australian age-related national youth championships (under 13, n = 133; under 14, n = 166; under 15, n = 120). A quartile split approach was used to separate higher (n = 100) and lower (n = 107) perfectionistic strivings groups. Findings revealed the higher perfectionistic strivings group accumulated more time in sport-specific activities, including coach-led practice, individual practice, peer-led play and indirect involvement in soccer when compared to individuals with lower perfectionistic strivings tendencies. Descriptive analysis indicates this equates to approximately 159 h a year (i.e. 17 h coach-led practice, 22 h individual practice, 60 h of peer-led play and 60 h of indirect involvement) more than the lower perfectionistic strivings group. In summary, the results suggest players with varying levels of perfectionistic strivings may be differentiated based on their engagement in soccer-specific activity in a sample of elite youth players in Australia, and suggests that perfectionistic strivings may have an adaptive influence on sport-specific engagement.
Decision-making is a key component of an umpire’s in-game performance, with each decision potenti... more Decision-making is a key component of an umpire’s in-game performance, with each decision potentially having a direct impact on the result of the game. Additionally, umpires have to be physically fit to ensure they keep up with the game-play. While research has identified the decision-making demands and running demands of umpires separately, few have explored the relationship between them. The aim of this investigation was to examine the relationship between physical exertion and decision-making performance of Australian Football umpires at the sub-elite and junior levels. A total of 18 Australian Football umpires (Sub-elite, n = 10; Junior n = 8) performed 10 x 300 metre runs, with each repetition immediately followed by a video-based decision-making test then 1 minute of recovery. A Mann-Whitney U assessment indicated a significant difference between the sub-elite and junior level umpires for decision-making accuracy (U = 13.00, z = -2.43, p = 0.016, r = -0.5). However, there was no significant difference in response time (U = 28.00, z = -1.07, p = 0.315, r = -0.25). The sub-elite umpires completed the running efforts in significantly less time than the junior umpires (p < 0.05). Further, there was no significant correlation between decision-making performance and running times for either skill level (p > 0.05). This suggests decision-making performance may not be affected by physical exertion. Therefore, it may be suggested coaches of football umpires allocate more time to the decision-making development of their umpires instead of focusing largely on the physical fitness side, as is currently the trend.
We examined whether soccer players who score low and high on the personality trait grit can be di... more We examined whether soccer players who score low and high on the personality trait grit can be differentiated based on their sport-specific engagement and perceptual-cognitive expertise. Findings revealed that grittier players accumulated significantly more time in sport-specific activities including competition, training, play, and indirect involvement. Moreover, there was a significant main effect for performance on the perceptual-cognitive skills tests across groups, with grittier players performing better than less gritty players on the assessments of decision-making and situational probability. The findings are the first to demonstrate a potential link between grit, sport-specific engagement and perceptual-cognitive expertise.
Objectives: Researchers have identified that pre-performance routines improve performance under p... more Objectives: Researchers have identified that pre-performance routines improve performance under pressure, yet have not investigated the effects of post-performance routines. Thus, the purpose of the current study was to examine whether the type of performance routine training could improve tenpin bowling accuracy and in-game performance. Design: A mixed-method design was adopted, whereby the impact of a performance routine intervention on performance accuracy and in-game performance was examined. This was followed by participants completing semi-structured interviews which explored the perceived effect of those routines. Method: Thirty-six experienced tenpin bowlers completed 30 accuracy shots pre-and post-intervention training, with league scores obtained for in-game performance comparison. Four groups (i.e., preperformance routine [PPR], post-performance routine [POST], combined pre-post routine, and a control group) practiced 12 games across four weeks while listening to the group specific routine instruction on an IPod. Results: It was noted that accuracy improved (albeit non-significantly) for the PPR and combined prepost routine group, but not the other groups. Critically, all intervention groups (PPR, POST & COMBO) improved in-game performance. The qualitative data indicated that both the PPR and POST was perceived to influence positively performance, attentional and emotional control, self-awareness, selfconfidence, motivation. The PPR was also considered to enhance a state of readiness, and perceived control. Conclusions: Results indicate that the PPR training enhanced accuracy and in-game performance, with the POST training acting as a supportive role for in-game performance as evidenced by the qualitative and quantitative data. Future research should continue to investigate the effects of POSTs.
interpret the perceptual information which leads to accurate infringement decisions. The results ... more interpret the perceptual information which leads to accurate infringement decisions. The results also indicated that elite athletes perceive structured patterns within game-play information significantly better than an umpire cohort. This confirms that umpires and athletes perceive the same gameplay information in skill-specific ways. This study validates the use of a video-based testing protocol for the assessment of umpire decision-making skill in AF. The findings demonstrate the potential for video-based testing to be utilised for the development of umpire skill benchmarks, ongoing assessment and monitoring of performance, and talent identification initiatives.
subjects' height or body mass index with injuries sustained during practice (r 2 = .007, p = .49;... more subjects' height or body mass index with injuries sustained during practice (r 2 = .007, p = .49; and r 2 = .0006, p = .84, respectively) or competition (r 2 = .012, p = .40; and r 2 = .036, p = .14, respectively), but significant and positive relationships were found between subjects' weight and injuries during competition (r 2 = .072, p = .035) and those injuries requiring medical attention (r 2 = .105, p = .01). Additionally, a positive but underpowered trend associating BMI to competition injuries requiring medical attention was noted (r 2 = .059, p = .058, power ≈.48).
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Papers by Paul Larkin
knowledgeable inspiration from other players and coaches; and a focus on improvement rather than winning. In future, research is needed to better understand how a coach’s conceptualisation of decision-making impacts on his/her ability to create effective environments to promote skill development in players.
Purpose: The aim in this exploratory study was to investigate the pedagogical approaches coaches use to develop decision-making in soccer.
Method: Youth soccer coaches (n = 29) currently coaching youth teams (U11–U17) in Australia were filmed conducting two practice sessions. The first session was a regular training session, whereas in the second session, participants were asked to create an activity they believed would promote the development of on-ball decision-making. Systematic observation of the learning and teaching (LandT) component of each session was undertaken to provide a detailed analysis of the coach behaviours and practice activities in which they had players engage. During this activity, the number of on-ball actions was measured to reflect the associated decision-making opportunities. Coaches indicated how they believed decision-making is developed in players, the strategies they would employ to improve decision-making, the perceived success of the activity (i.e. did they achieve their aims), and modifications they would make if conducting the activity again.
Data analysis: To assess differences between the regular training LandT activity and decision-making-specific LandT activity, coach behaviours, and on-ball actions, a Mann–Whitney U test was conducted. Coach perceptions were deductively analysed to identify main themes.
Findings: Participants identified three main strategies for incorporating decision-making into training activity – repetition of real scenarios with guided discovery, prompting decision-making by providing cues or solutions, and manipulating the game/activity. There were no differences in the frequency, average duration, or the percentage of allocated time for any of the practice activity variables (i.e. Playing Form; Training Form; Inactivity), coach behaviours (instructions; questions; management) or the number of on-ball decisions per minute between the regular activity and decision-making-specific activity (p > .05). Descriptive statistics indicated the coaching practice was stop-start in nature for coaches to instruct or ask questions.
Conclusions: Participants generally use strategies which may promote decision-making opportunities for players such as the use of questioning, constraints-led pedagogy, and Playing Form rather than Training Form activities. However, findings provide evidence to suggest the participants over-coach, with high amounts of instruction and a very stop-start nature to the activity. This coaching practice potentially limits the problem-solving and decision-making demands on players.
knowledgeable inspiration from other players and coaches; and a focus on improvement rather than winning. In future, research is needed to better understand how a coach’s conceptualisation of decision-making impacts on his/her ability to create effective environments to promote skill development in players.
Purpose: The aim in this exploratory study was to investigate the pedagogical approaches coaches use to develop decision-making in soccer.
Method: Youth soccer coaches (n = 29) currently coaching youth teams (U11–U17) in Australia were filmed conducting two practice sessions. The first session was a regular training session, whereas in the second session, participants were asked to create an activity they believed would promote the development of on-ball decision-making. Systematic observation of the learning and teaching (LandT) component of each session was undertaken to provide a detailed analysis of the coach behaviours and practice activities in which they had players engage. During this activity, the number of on-ball actions was measured to reflect the associated decision-making opportunities. Coaches indicated how they believed decision-making is developed in players, the strategies they would employ to improve decision-making, the perceived success of the activity (i.e. did they achieve their aims), and modifications they would make if conducting the activity again.
Data analysis: To assess differences between the regular training LandT activity and decision-making-specific LandT activity, coach behaviours, and on-ball actions, a Mann–Whitney U test was conducted. Coach perceptions were deductively analysed to identify main themes.
Findings: Participants identified three main strategies for incorporating decision-making into training activity – repetition of real scenarios with guided discovery, prompting decision-making by providing cues or solutions, and manipulating the game/activity. There were no differences in the frequency, average duration, or the percentage of allocated time for any of the practice activity variables (i.e. Playing Form; Training Form; Inactivity), coach behaviours (instructions; questions; management) or the number of on-ball decisions per minute between the regular activity and decision-making-specific activity (p > .05). Descriptive statistics indicated the coaching practice was stop-start in nature for coaches to instruct or ask questions.
Conclusions: Participants generally use strategies which may promote decision-making opportunities for players such as the use of questioning, constraints-led pedagogy, and Playing Form rather than Training Form activities. However, findings provide evidence to suggest the participants over-coach, with high amounts of instruction and a very stop-start nature to the activity. This coaching practice potentially limits the problem-solving and decision-making demands on players.