Books by Aurelia Masson-Berghoff (Masson)
Orientalia Lovaniensa Analecta 300, TravCFEETK, 2021
The Priests' Quarter is a housing quarter located within the sanctuary of Amun in Karnak, to the ... more The Priests' Quarter is a housing quarter located within the sanctuary of Amun in Karnak, to the east of the Sacred Lake. For almost all of the first millennium BC, it was occupied by priests performing their cultic service. A research programme initiated in 2001 by the Centre franco-égyptien d'étude des Temples de Karnak (Cfeetk) completes and revises the results of rescue excavations led in this area in the 1970s, which had so far never been fully published. The history and evolution of this quarter, as well as the identity, material culture, daily life and diet of its inhabitants, have been established through a multidisciplinary collaboration during excavation and post-excavation studies. This research explores how this settlement fits into the larger context of the temple, particularly its direct religious and architectural environment on the southern bank on the Sacred Lake where once stood large economic and possibly artisanal sectors. The study of these temple annexes offers a unique and eloquent testimony on the day-to-day activities within the temple of Amun in Karnak itself and the life of ancient Egyptian priests in general.
A. Masson-Berghoff (ed.), Statues in Context: Production, Meaning and (Re)uses, British Museum Publications on Egypt and Sudan 10, Leuven, 2019
Moving beyond typological and stylistic discourses on Egyptian statuary, the papers gathered here... more Moving beyond typological and stylistic discourses on Egyptian statuary, the papers gathered here seek to explore the architectural, cultic and production contexts of statuary, to shed light on religious or cultural practices, and the political or economic agenda behind the display or hiding of these sculptures. How and why were they originally displayed or kept invisible, transported, transformed or buried?
New discoveries, the re-contextualisation of earlier excavated statues as well as recent scientific analyses provide significant new insights into the production, meaning and (re-)uses of statues. This collection of papers encompasses the full typological and chronological range – from the Old Kingdom to Late Antiquity – and include statuary of all scales, from colossi to figurines. The studies cover statues mainly set up in temples, palaces, houses and tombs, and the later biographies of statues’ assemblages.
Naukratis in Context, 2019
This special issue of BMSAES publishes papers and additional reflections arising from two worksho... more This special issue of BMSAES publishes papers and additional reflections arising from two workshops organised at the British Museum in 2011 and 2013 as part of the British Museum’s Naukratis Project. Contributions by archaeologists, Classicists, Egyptologists and other specialists explore the diverse and sometimes contrasting narratives of the different disciplines and the underlying ancient realities. The first workshop – entitled ‘The Nile Delta as a landscape of connectivity’ – concentrated on the subjects of transport networks; trade and consumption; Delta industry; and Delta communities. The second workshop was dedicated to ‘Religious Naukratis in context’. Some studies put the primary emphasis on cults, sanctuaries and offerings at Naukratis itself, while others aimed to situate Naukratis in the wider perspective of religious phenomena in the Mediterranean area, especially in the context of trading ports, but also in contemporary sites in the Delta and elsewhere.
Beneath the waters of Abukir Bay, at the edge of the Nile Delta, lie the submerged remains of anc... more Beneath the waters of Abukir Bay, at the edge of the Nile Delta, lie the submerged remains of ancient Egyptian cities that sank over 1,000 years ago but were dramatically rediscovered in the late 20th century.
Pioneering underwater excavations since the 1990s have yielded a wealth of ancient buildings and artifacts, including temples and monumental statuary, harbour installations, and no fewer than 69 shipwrecks. Some of the greatest of these treasures are to be exhibited in Britain for the first time in 2016.
Through these outstanding finds, this book tells the story of how two iconic ancient civilizations, Egypt and Greece, interacted in the late first millennium bc, from the founding of Thonis-Heracleion, Naukratis and Canopus as trading and religious centres to the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great, through the ensuing centuries of Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) rule, to the suicide of Cleopatra, the last active pharaoh of Ptolemaic Egypt, and the ultimate dominance of Rome.
Throughout, Greeks and Egyptians lived alongside one another in these lively cities, sharing their politics, religious ideas, languages, scripts and customs. Greek kings adopted the regalia of the pharaoh; ordinary Greek citizens worshipped in Hellenic sanctuaries next to Egyptian temples; and their ancient gods and mythologies became ever more closely intertwined.
This book showcases a spectacular collection of artifacts, coupled with a retelling of the history and rediscovery of these lost cities by world-renowned experts (including the sites’ long-term excavator), bringing the reader face-to-face with this vibrant and multi-cultural ancient society.
Theban Harbours and Waterscapes Survey by Aurelia Masson-Berghoff (Masson)
J. Peeters , A. Graham, W.H.J. Toonen, B.T. Pennington, J.A. Durcan, T.G. Winkels, D.S. Barker, A. Masson-Berghoff, K. Adamson , V.L. Emery, K.D. Strutt, M. Millet, L.H. Sollars & H.H. Ghazala, 'Shift away from Nile incision at Luxor ~4,000 years ago impacted an. Eg. landscapes', Nature Geoscience, 2024
Although the Nile is one of the largest rivers in the world and played a central role in ancient ... more Although the Nile is one of the largest rivers in the world and played a central role in ancient Egyptian life, little is known about its response to climatic change during the Holocene. Here we present a framework for the evolution of the Egyptian Nile, demonstrating how climatic and environmental changes have shaped the landscape of the Egyptian Nile Valley over the past 11,500 years, including the civilization of ancient Egypt (~5,000 to 2,000 years ago). Using data from over 80 sediment cores drilled in a transect spanning the Nile Valley near Luxor, pinned in time by 48 optically stimulated luminescence ages, we reconstruct the dynamics of the Nile River during the Holocene in the vicinity of UNESCO World Heritage sites such as Karnak and Luxor temples. According to our reconstruction, valley incision occurred from the start of the record until approximately 4,000 years ago and then rapidly shifted to massive foodplain aggradation. We argue that this relatively abrupt change in the riverine landscape near Luxor from the Middle to Late Holocene was linked to a shift towards a drier regional hydroclimate around this time. Such a dramatic change in river sediment dynamics could have had local agro-economic consequences.
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2019
New Kingdom royal cult temples in Thebes (Luxor, Egypt) are all located on the lower desert edge.... more New Kingdom royal cult temples in Thebes (Luxor, Egypt) are all located on the lower desert edge. Kom el-Hettân (Amenhotep III: reign 1391-1353 BCE, 18th Dynasty) is an exception, as it is located in the present Nile floodplain. Its anomalous position has puzzled Egyptologists, as has the termination of its use, which traditionally has been attributed to natural hazards such as flooding or earthquakes. Geoarchaeological analyses of the subsurface shows that Amenhotep III's temple was initially founded on a wadi fan that stood several metres above the contemporary surrounding floodplain landscape. The temple was fronted by a minor branch of the Nile, which connected the temple to the wider region, but the temple itself was relatively safe from the annual flood of the Nile. This geoarchaeological study comprised a coring programme to determine the c. 4000-yr landscape history of the local area. Chronological control was provided by the analysis of ceramic fragments recovered from within the sediments. This study shows that the New Kingdom period was, at least locally, characterised by extremely high sedimentation rates that caused a rapid rise of the floodplain and gradual submergence of the pre-existing high temple grounds. This is, however, not a plausible reason for the destruction of the temple, as frequent inundation did not begin until the temple was already out of use and largely dismantled.
eTopoi Journal for Ancient Studies, Special Issue 3 pp135-142, 2012
Geoarchaeology, 2018
In the Theban area around modern Luxor (Egypt), the River Nile divides the temple complexes of Ka... more In the Theban area around modern Luxor (Egypt), the River Nile divides the temple complexes of Karnak and Luxor from New Kingdom royal cult temples on the western desert edge. Few sites have been archaeologically identified in the western flood plain, despite its presumed pivotal role in the ancient ritual landscape as the territory that both physically divided and symbolically connected the areas inhabited by the living and the areas occupied by the dead. Using borehole data and electrical resistivity tomography, the current investigation of subsurface deposits reveals the location of an abandoned channel of the Nile. This river course was positioned in the western, dis-tal part of the Nile flood plain. Over 2100 ceramic fragments recovered from boreholes date the abandonment of the relatively minor river channel to the (late) New Kingdom. This minor river branch could have played an important role in the cultural landscape, as it would have served to connect important localities in the ritual landscape. Changes in the fluvial landscape match with established periods of basin-wide hydroclimatic variability. This links cultural and landscape changes observed on a regional scale to hydroclimatic dynamics in the larger Nile catchment, in one of the focal areas of Ancient Egyptian cultural development.
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 25, 2019
New Kingdom royal cult temples in Thebes (Luxor, Egypt) are all located on the lower desert edge.... more New Kingdom royal cult temples in Thebes (Luxor, Egypt) are all located on the lower desert edge. Kom el-Hettân (Amenhotep III: reign 1391-1353 BCE, 18th Dynasty) is an exception, as it is located in the present Nile floodplain. Its anomalous position has puzzled Egyptologists, as has the termination of its use, which traditionally has been attributed to natural hazards such as flooding or earthquakes. Geoarchaeological analyses of the subsurface shows that Amenhotep III's temple was initially founded on a wadi fan that stood several metres above the contemporary surrounding floodplain landscape. The temple was fronted by a minor branch of the Nile, which connected the temple to the wider region, but the temple itself was relatively safe from the annual flood of the Nile. This geoarchaeological study comprised a coring programme to determine the c. 4000-yr landscape history of the local area. Chronological control was provided by the analysis of ceramic fragments recovered from within the sediments. This study shows that the New Kingdom period was, at least locally, characterised by extremely high sedimentation rates that caused a rapid rise of the floodplain and gradual submergence of the pre-existing high temple grounds. This is, however, not a plausible reason for the destruction of the temple, as frequent inundation did not begin until the temple was already out of use and largely dismantled .
In the Theban area around modern Luxor (Egypt), the River Nile divides the temple complexes of Ka... more In the Theban area around modern Luxor (Egypt), the River Nile divides the temple complexes of Karnak and Luxor from New Kingdom royal cult temples on the western desert edge. Few sites have been archaeologically identified in the western flood plain, despite its presumed pivotal role in the ancient ritual landscape as the territory that both physically divided and symbolically connected the areas inhabited by the living and the areas occupied by the dead. Using borehole data and electrical resistivity tomography, the current investigation of subsurface deposits reveals the location of an abandoned channel of the Nile. This river course was positioned in the western, dis-tal part of the Nile flood plain. Over 2100 ceramic fragments recovered from boreholes date the abandonment of the relatively minor river channel to the (late) New Kingdom. This minor river branch could have played an important role in the cultural landscape, as it would have served to connect important localities in the ritual landscape. Changes in the fluvial landscape match with established periods of basin-wide hydroclimatic variability. This links cultural and landscape changes observed on a regional scale to hydroclimatic dynamics in the larger Nile catchment, in one of the focal areas of Ancient Egyptian cultural development.
Manipulating Mud : (re-)constructing cosmogonical landscapes in the Nile Valley, Thebes, Egypt
Report on the 2015 season of the Theban Harbours and Waterscapes Survey (THaWS). The paper discus... more Report on the 2015 season of the Theban Harbours and Waterscapes Survey (THaWS). The paper discusses the extension of geoarchaeological and geophysical investigations to the east of the Ramesseum, the continuing work in and around the Temple of Millions of Years of Amenhotep III, and the topographic survey and geophysical survey of the western mounds of the Birket Habu.
A. Graham, K.D. Strutt, M. Hunter, S. Jones, A. Masson, M. Millet, B. Pennington, "Theban Harbours and Waterscapes Survey, 2012", The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 98 (2012), 27–42. The aim of the project Theban Harbours and Waterscapes Survey (THAWS) is to (re)construct past la... more The aim of the project Theban Harbours and Waterscapes Survey (THAWS) is to (re)construct past land- and waterscapes in the Theban region over the last five Millennia and to understand the extent to which the Ancient Egyptians were able to manipulate the dynamic floodplain. This paper presents the methodology followed in this survey (Electrical Resistivity Tomography; Magnetometry; Topographic survey strategy and control; Geoarchaeological methodology; Ceramic methodology) as well as the principal results of the 2012 survey. The latter was carried out in the neighborhood of various major sites on the Eastern and Western banks: royal cult temples of Ramses II (Ramesseum), Amenhotep III (Kom el-Hettan), Thutmose III and Amenhotep II; harbour of the ceremonial and royal city of Malkata (Birket Habu); Karnak.
eTopoi. Journal for …, Jan 1, 2012
Jewellery and gems by Aurelia Masson-Berghoff (Masson)
Claudia Wagner, Aurelia Masson- Berghoff, Tom Harrison and Oliver Croker, 'Miniature masterpieces', British Museum Magazine Spring/Summer 2024, 32-33, 2024
Rediscovering Gems is an exhibition that delves into the significance of classical gems and their... more Rediscovering Gems is an exhibition that delves into the significance of classical gems and their impact on history. This display serves as a testament to the enduring allure of these small yet mesmerising masterpieces. The inspiration at its heart is one of the British
Museum’s most influential collectors: Charles Townley (1737–1805).
'Egyptian bronzes' by Aurelia Masson-Berghoff (Masson)
A. Masson-Berghoff and E. Pernicka, 'Origins of metals for countless bronzes', in A. Masson-Berghoff (ed.), Statues in Context: Production, Meaning and (Re)uses, British Museum Publications on Egypt and Sudan 10, Leuven, 2019, 53-72., 2019
The proliferation of votive and ritual bronzes during
the Late Period would have required a stead... more The proliferation of votive and ritual bronzes during
the Late Period would have required a steady supply of
metals, in the shape of either bronze scrap or raw materials
— not only copper, but also lead, which often
formed a high percentage of their alloys. While the use
of recycled material in their production remains a possibility,
it is not always corroborated through compositional
data. With copper and lead remaining essential
commodities after the Bronze Age, Egypt’s access to
raw materials and the trade in these metals represents
a crucial research topic that has been little investigated
so far. In addition to a few written sources, recent and
ongoing surveys and excavations provide new insights
into the exploitation of mines in the Mediterranean
world during this period. Scientific analysis finally
allows us to determine the origin of the copper and/or
lead ores with good probability, as sufficient comparative
data from ore deposits of raw copper and lead of
the Eastern Mediterranean and the Near East are now
available. Recent compositional and isotopic analyses
have been carried out on a wide range of Late Period
finds, including the Egyptian metal statuettes on which
this paper puts a particular emphasis. The lead isotope
analyses (LIA) indicate a variety of imported sources.
The samples taken from Egyptian bronze statuettes and
other sacred finds are consistent with Laurion in Attica,
the northern Aegean and western Anatolia, but also
possibly Cyprus, Faynan in the Wadi Arabah, the Sinai
Peninsula and Iran. The historical implications of such
results are tentatively put forward.
Animal mummification was commonplace in ancient Egypt, with the remains of many animals placed in... more Animal mummification was commonplace in ancient Egypt, with the remains of many animals placed inside statues or votive boxes with representations of animals or hybrid human–animal creatures. Votive boxes were made from a variety of materials and often sealed; some boxes are still preserved in this state in museum collections. A prior study of sealed copper alloy votive boxes from the collection of the British Museum used X-ray computed tomography to search for animal remains, where poor image quality resulted due to attenuation from the boxes and apparent dense metals inside. In this study, neutron tomography was applied to six of the votive boxes previously examined. Animal remains, likely from lizards, and fragments of textile wrappings were discovered inside three of the boxes. Evidence of the manufacturing process and subsequent repairs of the boxes were uncovered by neutrons. Significant quantities of lead were also identified in three boxes. The findings demonstrate the effectiveness of neutron tomography for the study of mummified remains inside sealed metal containers, and give evidence linking the animal figures represented on top of votive boxes to the concealed remains.
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2018
Metal trade and access to raw materials during the Late Bronze Age—roughly covering the New Kingd... more Metal trade and access to raw materials during the Late Bronze Age—roughly covering the New Kingdom in Egypt—have received substantial attention from past and present scholarship. Despite copper and lead remaining essential commodities afterwards, our knowledge about their supply during the Iron Age and later periods, in contrast, remains limited, even if it has improved recently. This paper presents the results of a pilot project investigating the possible sources of lead and copper available to Egypt during the Late Period (664–332 BCE), a period of intense contact and exchange between Egypt and the Mediterranean world. In the context of this research, a wide range of artefacts from Naukratis, a major cosmopolitan trading hub in the Western Nile Delta founded in the late 7th century BC, were analysed to determine their chemical composition and lead isotope ratios. They mostly consist of metal finds—including a crucible slag—but also some locally produced faience objects which used lead and copper to colour the glaze. Additional samples include metal objects and lead ores from Tell Dafana, a Late Period settlement in the Eastern Delta, and contemporary Egyptian or Egyptianizing bronzes from Cyprus.
A total of 39 objects were analysed with a combination of lead isotope and elemental analysis, yielding surprising results for the likely origins of the copper. While Cyprus, an expected source for copper, is identified for one object, the copper deposits from Faynan or from northwestern Anatolia offer the best match for most finds, including those found in Cyprus. The lead analysed seems to originate from a variety of mines, particularly from Laurion in Attica, and mines in the northern Aegean and/or northwestern Anatolia, with one example possibly from a lead‑silver mine located in central Iran. The multiplicity of lead sources reflects the complexity of international trade in the Eastern Mediterranean at the time. The study offers a valuable insight into the trade networks of Egypt and, by extension, the whole of the ancient Mediterranean. A larger-scale project investigating objects from a wider range of sites in the Eastern Mediterranean world could revolutionize our understanding of metal trade and concomitant economic, political and social developments in the first millennium BC.
Absent, invisible or revealed ‘relics’? X-radiography and CT scanning of Egyptian bronze votive boxes from Naukratis and elsewhere, 2019
This contribution provides the results of an investigation carried out on a group of sealed recta... more This contribution provides the results of an investigation carried out on a group of sealed rectangular bronze boxes, commonly referred to as relic-boxes or reliquaries (reliquaires), but also as mummy-cases (Mumienkästchen), animal coffins or votive coffins. The bronze containers are generally believed to contain the mummified body, or part thereof, of the creature represented on the top of the box. These objects gained massive popularity as part of a new form of animal worship that rose to significance in Egypt during the 1st millennium BC. Eight sealed bronze examples of various sizes and from the British Museum collections were X-ray imaged, with radiography and, for six of them, CT (computed tomography) scanning. The aim was to determine if there were any animal remains visible inside and provide further insights into this ancient Egyptian practice. In addition, the study tested the usefulness of such techniques to probe organic matter encased in metal.
Bronzes of Pharaonic style represent an assorted group of Egyptian finds from Naukratis, more num... more Bronzes of Pharaonic style represent an assorted group of Egyptian finds from Naukratis, more numerous than previously thought. They comprise votive boxes surmounted by reptiles, figures of Egyptian gods, figure fittings for larger statues and models of cult equipment, chiefly belonging to types well attested across the Delta and the Memphite region. As offerings to the gods, such objects were usually deposited in Egyptian animal necropoleis, temples or shrines. New insight into the dating and contexts of discovery of Egyptian bronze finds reveal the existence of purely Egyptian cult practices and beliefs at Naukratis from the Late Period onwards, an aspect otherwise little acknowledged and studied in the scholarship on Naukratis.
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Books by Aurelia Masson-Berghoff (Masson)
New discoveries, the re-contextualisation of earlier excavated statues as well as recent scientific analyses provide significant new insights into the production, meaning and (re-)uses of statues. This collection of papers encompasses the full typological and chronological range – from the Old Kingdom to Late Antiquity – and include statuary of all scales, from colossi to figurines. The studies cover statues mainly set up in temples, palaces, houses and tombs, and the later biographies of statues’ assemblages.
Pioneering underwater excavations since the 1990s have yielded a wealth of ancient buildings and artifacts, including temples and monumental statuary, harbour installations, and no fewer than 69 shipwrecks. Some of the greatest of these treasures are to be exhibited in Britain for the first time in 2016.
Through these outstanding finds, this book tells the story of how two iconic ancient civilizations, Egypt and Greece, interacted in the late first millennium bc, from the founding of Thonis-Heracleion, Naukratis and Canopus as trading and religious centres to the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great, through the ensuing centuries of Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) rule, to the suicide of Cleopatra, the last active pharaoh of Ptolemaic Egypt, and the ultimate dominance of Rome.
Throughout, Greeks and Egyptians lived alongside one another in these lively cities, sharing their politics, religious ideas, languages, scripts and customs. Greek kings adopted the regalia of the pharaoh; ordinary Greek citizens worshipped in Hellenic sanctuaries next to Egyptian temples; and their ancient gods and mythologies became ever more closely intertwined.
This book showcases a spectacular collection of artifacts, coupled with a retelling of the history and rediscovery of these lost cities by world-renowned experts (including the sites’ long-term excavator), bringing the reader face-to-face with this vibrant and multi-cultural ancient society.
Theban Harbours and Waterscapes Survey by Aurelia Masson-Berghoff (Masson)
Jewellery and gems by Aurelia Masson-Berghoff (Masson)
Museum’s most influential collectors: Charles Townley (1737–1805).
'Egyptian bronzes' by Aurelia Masson-Berghoff (Masson)
the Late Period would have required a steady supply of
metals, in the shape of either bronze scrap or raw materials
— not only copper, but also lead, which often
formed a high percentage of their alloys. While the use
of recycled material in their production remains a possibility,
it is not always corroborated through compositional
data. With copper and lead remaining essential
commodities after the Bronze Age, Egypt’s access to
raw materials and the trade in these metals represents
a crucial research topic that has been little investigated
so far. In addition to a few written sources, recent and
ongoing surveys and excavations provide new insights
into the exploitation of mines in the Mediterranean
world during this period. Scientific analysis finally
allows us to determine the origin of the copper and/or
lead ores with good probability, as sufficient comparative
data from ore deposits of raw copper and lead of
the Eastern Mediterranean and the Near East are now
available. Recent compositional and isotopic analyses
have been carried out on a wide range of Late Period
finds, including the Egyptian metal statuettes on which
this paper puts a particular emphasis. The lead isotope
analyses (LIA) indicate a variety of imported sources.
The samples taken from Egyptian bronze statuettes and
other sacred finds are consistent with Laurion in Attica,
the northern Aegean and western Anatolia, but also
possibly Cyprus, Faynan in the Wadi Arabah, the Sinai
Peninsula and Iran. The historical implications of such
results are tentatively put forward.
A total of 39 objects were analysed with a combination of lead isotope and elemental analysis, yielding surprising results for the likely origins of the copper. While Cyprus, an expected source for copper, is identified for one object, the copper deposits from Faynan or from northwestern Anatolia offer the best match for most finds, including those found in Cyprus. The lead analysed seems to originate from a variety of mines, particularly from Laurion in Attica, and mines in the northern Aegean and/or northwestern Anatolia, with one example possibly from a lead‑silver mine located in central Iran. The multiplicity of lead sources reflects the complexity of international trade in the Eastern Mediterranean at the time. The study offers a valuable insight into the trade networks of Egypt and, by extension, the whole of the ancient Mediterranean. A larger-scale project investigating objects from a wider range of sites in the Eastern Mediterranean world could revolutionize our understanding of metal trade and concomitant economic, political and social developments in the first millennium BC.
New discoveries, the re-contextualisation of earlier excavated statues as well as recent scientific analyses provide significant new insights into the production, meaning and (re-)uses of statues. This collection of papers encompasses the full typological and chronological range – from the Old Kingdom to Late Antiquity – and include statuary of all scales, from colossi to figurines. The studies cover statues mainly set up in temples, palaces, houses and tombs, and the later biographies of statues’ assemblages.
Pioneering underwater excavations since the 1990s have yielded a wealth of ancient buildings and artifacts, including temples and monumental statuary, harbour installations, and no fewer than 69 shipwrecks. Some of the greatest of these treasures are to be exhibited in Britain for the first time in 2016.
Through these outstanding finds, this book tells the story of how two iconic ancient civilizations, Egypt and Greece, interacted in the late first millennium bc, from the founding of Thonis-Heracleion, Naukratis and Canopus as trading and religious centres to the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great, through the ensuing centuries of Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) rule, to the suicide of Cleopatra, the last active pharaoh of Ptolemaic Egypt, and the ultimate dominance of Rome.
Throughout, Greeks and Egyptians lived alongside one another in these lively cities, sharing their politics, religious ideas, languages, scripts and customs. Greek kings adopted the regalia of the pharaoh; ordinary Greek citizens worshipped in Hellenic sanctuaries next to Egyptian temples; and their ancient gods and mythologies became ever more closely intertwined.
This book showcases a spectacular collection of artifacts, coupled with a retelling of the history and rediscovery of these lost cities by world-renowned experts (including the sites’ long-term excavator), bringing the reader face-to-face with this vibrant and multi-cultural ancient society.
Museum’s most influential collectors: Charles Townley (1737–1805).
the Late Period would have required a steady supply of
metals, in the shape of either bronze scrap or raw materials
— not only copper, but also lead, which often
formed a high percentage of their alloys. While the use
of recycled material in their production remains a possibility,
it is not always corroborated through compositional
data. With copper and lead remaining essential
commodities after the Bronze Age, Egypt’s access to
raw materials and the trade in these metals represents
a crucial research topic that has been little investigated
so far. In addition to a few written sources, recent and
ongoing surveys and excavations provide new insights
into the exploitation of mines in the Mediterranean
world during this period. Scientific analysis finally
allows us to determine the origin of the copper and/or
lead ores with good probability, as sufficient comparative
data from ore deposits of raw copper and lead of
the Eastern Mediterranean and the Near East are now
available. Recent compositional and isotopic analyses
have been carried out on a wide range of Late Period
finds, including the Egyptian metal statuettes on which
this paper puts a particular emphasis. The lead isotope
analyses (LIA) indicate a variety of imported sources.
The samples taken from Egyptian bronze statuettes and
other sacred finds are consistent with Laurion in Attica,
the northern Aegean and western Anatolia, but also
possibly Cyprus, Faynan in the Wadi Arabah, the Sinai
Peninsula and Iran. The historical implications of such
results are tentatively put forward.
A total of 39 objects were analysed with a combination of lead isotope and elemental analysis, yielding surprising results for the likely origins of the copper. While Cyprus, an expected source for copper, is identified for one object, the copper deposits from Faynan or from northwestern Anatolia offer the best match for most finds, including those found in Cyprus. The lead analysed seems to originate from a variety of mines, particularly from Laurion in Attica, and mines in the northern Aegean and/or northwestern Anatolia, with one example possibly from a lead‑silver mine located in central Iran. The multiplicity of lead sources reflects the complexity of international trade in the Eastern Mediterranean at the time. The study offers a valuable insight into the trade networks of Egypt and, by extension, the whole of the ancient Mediterranean. A larger-scale project investigating objects from a wider range of sites in the Eastern Mediterranean world could revolutionize our understanding of metal trade and concomitant economic, political and social developments in the first millennium BC.
While other surveys were later undertaken in this part of Egypt, this survey remains a significant archaeological exploration of the region especially as many sites have since suffered significant destruction. The British Museum project aims to reassess and update in the light of current scholarly knowledge the extensive, but little published, fieldwork documentation.
Covering the history of a significant region from the 3rd millennium BC to the late 1st millennium AD, this research provides insight into the scale and resolution of settlements within a dynamically changing natural landscape that was a substantial inter-cultural contact zone. This paper presents some preliminary and selected interpretations of the survey and excavations data.
The small corpus from Naukratis covers the Middle Bronze Age (an ‘heirloom’) to the Roman period. It also covers a wide variety of shapes, materials and devices, ranging from a refined intaglio in chalcedony and cheaper versions in glass to a cylinder-seal in ivory or bone, as well as roughly carved limestone seal-stamps. The seals’ diverse styles and motifs reflect the major cultures represented at the site, not only Egyptian and Greek but also Cypriot, Levantine and Punic. Similarly, seal-impressions can display Egyptian or Greek inscriptions or motifs. Some of the seals were imported while others were produced locally, as indicated by some unfinished examples.
The present study aims to provide a more complete vision of the extant finds from the early excavations, allowing for a fundamental reassessment of the amuletic corpus from Naukratis and its significance. It starts with a presentation of the Scarab Factory—its products and associated moulds—followed by a discussion of a group of less-known and difficult to interpret scarabs and scaraboids made in stone. It then focusses on the variety of other types of amulets discovered at the site, some of which were probably locally produced and possibly formed another key export from Naukratis. Their subjects tally in general with contemporary amulets found elsewhere in Egypt and the Mediterranean world. Finally, the recontextualisation of amuletic finds from Naukratis reveals how this material was not exclusively aimed at export, but also found a more local and traditional market. Beyond the trade perspective, amulets reflect beliefs and ritual practices by inhabitants and visitors to this international riverine port. Exploring questions of production and distribution as well as consumption of these amulets at Naukratis, this work opens new debates and stresses the need for new typological classifications, as much as for consideration of provenance, significance and use.
A small group of portable cult objects, furniture and minor architectural models and fragments were found in Naukratis, most of them from Greek and possibly Egyptian sanctuaries as well as Egyptian houses. They are treated in four separate sections: altars; house models; sundials; and architectural fragments. Portable altars like incense burners were used for burning offerings to the gods; their iconography and types belong to Egyptian, Greek and Phoenician/Punic cultures. House models, used as lamp shrines or to burn offerings, reproduce typical Egyptian tower house and temple architecture. Sundials were dedicated in the Apollo sanctuary. Most architectural fragments probably came from Greek sanctuaries, although some may have belonged to private residences.
The finds illustrate that Naukratis formed part of the Egypt-wide phenomenon of the growing production and consumption of bronze votives in the Late Period. Such increase must have been facilitated, or perhaps even incurred, by an affluent and secure supply of metal. Copper and lead, which are the primary metals used to produce votive bronzes in the Late Period, were most likely imported into Egypt. Their possible origin(s) are explored in the second part of the article.
The first excavation season in Naukratis under Petrie unveiled six deposits in the foundations of the Ptolemy II gateway of the Great Temenos. These deposits were the first to be scientifically excavated in Egypt and recognized for what they were. Their discovery, content and significance are discussed in the present study. The issue related to the orientation of the monument, which was usually determined during the foundation ceremony, is also briefly addressed.
was occupied by priests performing their cultic service. The history and evolution of this quarter, as well as the identity, material culture, daily life and diet of its inhabitants, have been established through multidisciplinary collaboration during excavation and post-excavation studies. This paper examines its early phases, during the Third Intermediate and Late periods, and explores how this settlement fits into the larger
context of the temple, particularly its direct religious and architectural environment on the southern bank on the Sacred Lake.
of ceramics discovered in a razed mud brick building- NKF35 - located west of the sanctuary of Montu. The
fire has previously been attributed to the invasion of Cambyses II in 525BC, but we show that the structure
NKF35 was most likely burnt in an earlier period. Statistical study of the types of vessels gives us a hint as to
the nature and possible functions of this building found in the vicinity of the Chapel of Osiris Nebdjet, which
is likely to be contemporary.
The artifacts and organic remains found during new excavations of settlements give us a good idea of the inhabitants and their daily life.
People sometimes assume that when two cultures mix, the essence of each is diluted and, as a result, weakened; this exhibition demonstrates the opposite. It is a rare opportunity to reveal the beauty and strength of Late Pharaonic art and culture, alongside the latest research on the momentous intermingling between Egyptian and Greek communities in Egypt at this time. We are illustrating this vibrant cosmopolitan world through Egyptian, Greek and ‘hybrid’ artworks, rarely ever displayed side-by-side. It shows Ancient Egypt not as an isolated civilisation, but as the outward looking, influential and inclusive society that it was.
Aegyptiaca Project website: http://aegeanegyptology.gr/the-aegyptiaca-project-ecumene-…/
economic backgrounds from the late 19th century until today.
In the British Museum’s ongoing reassessment of Naukratis, interdisciplinary collaboration and a critical review of fieldwork old and new enables a new perspective on the port’s multi-ethnic populations and their religious and economic activities. Among the key results is the greater recognition of Egyptian agency and of the way that both Greeks and Egyptians shaped the town’s life and history from its foundation. A deeper understanding of the site and its archaeology also allow us to more fully appreciate the processes behind diverse scholarly constructs of Naukratis – including our own – and to assess their wider impact on the perception of Egyptian-Greek economic and cultural exchange.
An on-going project at the British Museum has been reappraising the survey’s extensive archival documents as well as original finds. This paper will present our preliminary results. Among them, the identification of a FIP-early Middle Kingdom occupation at Kom Kortas and an Old Kingdom phase at Kom Dahab represents a significant new insight into the history of this region. While many sites were surveyed—and some extensively excavated—the dearth of deep trenches means that the early history of the western Nile Delta is probably underrepresented. The sites surveyed by the American mission epitomise the complexity of this region throughout its history. Encompassing fortress towns and port cities, military, economic, domestic contexts, workshops and industrial installations, they give insight into the political and socio-economic development of this rich cultural landscape over four millennia.
In a collaborative British-German pilot project, lead isotope analyses were carried on finds of various categories, including Egyptian bronzes, arrow-heads, weights, vessels and faience amulets discovered at Naukratis. By pharaonic decree, all imports had to arrive to this trading post during parts or potentially all of the Late Period. As a centre of cultural, technical and commercial exchange between Egypt and the Mediterranean world, Naukratis represents an ideal starting point for the investigation of this topic. Results indicate a variety of imported resources, with samples consistent notably with Laurion in Attica, Northern Aegean, Western Anatolia, Iran, Caucasus, southern Cyprus, but also the Sinai Peninsula.
In addition to the few written sources referring to the trade of metal, recent and on-going surveys and excavations provide new insights into the exploitation of mines in Egypt and elsewhere during the Iron Age. Discoveries of ingots in Late Period contexts bear testimony to the import of metal in Egypt. Analyses tackling the provenance of ores are scarce for objects dated to the Late Period. Even if the identification of a particular mine as a source is not possible through Lead Isotope analyses, it is easy to differentiate ‘local’ ores (from Sinai and in the Eastern desert along the Red Sea coast) from imported ones. Their results will be discussed and compared to the numerous analyses carried out on Late Bronze Age objects.
Results so far have brought significant advances, allowing us to revise our understanding of the character and development of Naukratis throughout its history, from its foundation in the 7th century BC until its demise in the 7th century AD. They indicate that the town was a mixed Egyptian-Greek settlement with a significant Egyptian element to its material culture from its very beginnings, clarify the site’s (substantial) extent and its relation to the Canopic branch of the Nile, and provide a new basis for charting the history this vibrant town and trading port at the cusp of two civilisations.
This paper will look at the various types of Egyptian votive offerings discovered at Naukratis. Whenever possible, they will be analysed in the light of their context of discovery, through the use of documentation from the early explorations of the site, such as excavation diaries, letters and photographs, which help to re-contextualise many of these finds. Based on this analysis, we will discuss Egyptian cultic practices at Naukratis and determine to what extent they pertain to the wider religious context of the Delta. We will also underline possible religious interactions between Egyptians and the foreign communities residing or simply visiting the numerous sanctuaries of this harbour town.
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Even though it remains a matter of debate, the presence of Greeks at Naukratis since the late 7th century BC is generally accepted. The question appears however more delicate when it comes to a contemporary, or even earlier, Egyptian presence. Classicists tend to perceive Naukratis as a purely Greek foundation and post-pone any Egyptian presence until the Ptolemaic Period. The discriminating selection of the finds during the early exploration of the site is partially responsible for this opinion. Egyptian common ware, which should have formed the bulk of the material was discarded, whereas even the tiniest fragments of decorated or inscribed Greek vase were kept. If Coulson and Leonard tried to apply more modern methods in their investigation of the site between 1977 and 1983, they did not recognise any Egyptian pre-Ptolemaic material. Nonetheless, Egyptian inscriptions - first gathered and analysed by J. Yoyotte – confirm that Egyptians were present in Naukratis at least as early as the 26th dynasty. A few elements may as well indicate an even earlier date.
The current project at the British Museum is engaged in a multidisciplinary approach to the site of Naukratis. It involves a comprehensive study of the surviving finds discovered in the previous archaeological research, as well as a new survey which uses the latest techniques. The Egyptian artefacts, at last brought forward, restore the so far biased view that most scholars had of Naukratis. Finds previously barely discussed and often unknown, such as stone scarabs and scaraboids, can corroborate an early Egyptian presence at the site. They help to re-evaluate the true nature of the material culture of Naukratis during the Late Period and possibly the late Third Intermediate Period. A discussion on their original archaeological context is certainly needed and diaries of the former archaeologists can prove to be helpful in that matter. At last, the preliminary results of the survey, performed in 2012 and led by Ross Thomas, support a pre-Ptolemaic date for the earliest evidence of Egyptians at Naukratis.
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