Heather J Hopkins
Understanding the influences, at a macro and micro level, on the scale production of the dyeing industry of Pompeii through the use of full scale replicas and computer modelling.
Includes: complete gazetteer of dyeing apparatus, exploration of dyeing types and consumables, water quality and quantity, fuel type and quantity, apparatus ergonomics and skeletal review, population size and requirements, Roman dress, experimental replicas and use, the use of Finite Element Analysis to recreate the apparatus and to model creep - the first computer simulation of an archaeological artefact of more than one material or to replicate heating, and the application of modern Systems and Manufacturing Theory to the Roman dyeing industry. The data used for replicating the apparatus (the physical replicas and the computer model) is new and was defined as part of this study.
Undertaking the PhD required the recruitment, scheduling and management of more than 25 people and organisations, who each acted voluntarily.
I am awaiting copyright approval to put full articles online. In the meantime, please enjoy the references and abstracts. More are forthcoming, under review or in press. Please note that where titles may appear similar the articles were written for different audiences and so have significantly different contents and approach.
In contrast to my academic work, until recently I was also a 'Post Excavation Officer' for Thames Valley Archaeological Services (TVAS), a medium-sized commercial field unit. I authored or co-authored more than 55 reports, some of which form part of the public archive and are available online. I am familiar with both research and rescue archaeology and use my experience in each field to complement the other.
I was involved in the drafting of the IfA professional practice paper no 9 "Disability and the Archaeological Profession", published in 2010.
I am an Associate member of the CIfA.
In addition:
I was a Co-ordinator of the national census, managing a team of 15 staff in three roles and accounting for all addresses and census forms within my area.
Throughout my PhD studies I worked as a Support Worker / Learning Assistant in Further and Higher Education. I provided physical, behavioural and academic support in a range of subjects, from Milestone 7 to Masters level. Simultaneously I provided pastoral care as a Residential Warden. I was awarded University Colours for my managerial and promotional roles as President of Fencing and Exec member of Hiking.
Includes: complete gazetteer of dyeing apparatus, exploration of dyeing types and consumables, water quality and quantity, fuel type and quantity, apparatus ergonomics and skeletal review, population size and requirements, Roman dress, experimental replicas and use, the use of Finite Element Analysis to recreate the apparatus and to model creep - the first computer simulation of an archaeological artefact of more than one material or to replicate heating, and the application of modern Systems and Manufacturing Theory to the Roman dyeing industry. The data used for replicating the apparatus (the physical replicas and the computer model) is new and was defined as part of this study.
Undertaking the PhD required the recruitment, scheduling and management of more than 25 people and organisations, who each acted voluntarily.
I am awaiting copyright approval to put full articles online. In the meantime, please enjoy the references and abstracts. More are forthcoming, under review or in press. Please note that where titles may appear similar the articles were written for different audiences and so have significantly different contents and approach.
In contrast to my academic work, until recently I was also a 'Post Excavation Officer' for Thames Valley Archaeological Services (TVAS), a medium-sized commercial field unit. I authored or co-authored more than 55 reports, some of which form part of the public archive and are available online. I am familiar with both research and rescue archaeology and use my experience in each field to complement the other.
I was involved in the drafting of the IfA professional practice paper no 9 "Disability and the Archaeological Profession", published in 2010.
I am an Associate member of the CIfA.
In addition:
I was a Co-ordinator of the national census, managing a team of 15 staff in three roles and accounting for all addresses and census forms within my area.
Throughout my PhD studies I worked as a Support Worker / Learning Assistant in Further and Higher Education. I provided physical, behavioural and academic support in a range of subjects, from Milestone 7 to Masters level. Simultaneously I provided pastoral care as a Residential Warden. I was awarded University Colours for my managerial and promotional roles as President of Fencing and Exec member of Hiking.
less
Related Authors
InterestsView All (21)
Uploads
Papers by Heather J Hopkins
Book editors: L. Grana Nicolaou, T. Ivleva, B Griffiths.
Exploring the quantity and quality, the source, the storage and the disposal of the water required by the dyeing workshops in Pompeii.
The maximum quantity of dyed material that can be produced per year by the dyeing industry of Pompeii is now known. From this it is possible to calculate the water requirements of the industry and see whether water was a limiting factor in production.
The possibility of lead in Pompeii's water is also re-examined, highlighting the importance of including findings from new technology and also how quickly learned safety behaviours can be lost in the modern era.
The dyeing kettles in Pompeii were made from lead. Given how fragile lead is, this was anomalous from an engineering perspective - the kettles had to withstand high temperature and the weight of water to allow dyeing, which lead is unable to do. This was confirmed when finding evidence of 'lead creep' in the surviving kettles.
A mordant is the 'chemical glue' that binds a dye to a material, allowing dyeing. Once mordanted a material should not be affected by the metal a dyeing kettle has been manufactured from. This highlights further the anomaly of manufacturing kettles from lead.
A simulation of mordant and dyeing in metal kettles accessible to dyers in Pompeii was undertaken. This discovered that each metal interfered chemically with the mordanting process, the dyeing process and, when attempted sequentially, with the mordanting and dyeing process. The greatest effect was during dyeing. It was discovered that the only metal to not have a negative effect on the dye chemistry was lead, the 'neutral kettle'. Oxidised lead was found more beneficial than lead.
Prior to this study it had been thought that mordanted material would be unaffected by the dyeing kettle. This experiment showed that the material can be affected at any stage of the process and that the dyers in Pompeii had chosen lead, despite its physical disadvantages, due to its chemical properties. These were entirely new findings.
Book editors: L. Grana Nicolaou, T. Ivleva, B Griffiths.
Exploring the quantity and quality, the source, the storage and the disposal of the water required by the dyeing workshops in Pompeii.
The maximum quantity of dyed material that can be produced per year by the dyeing industry of Pompeii is now known. From this it is possible to calculate the water requirements of the industry and see whether water was a limiting factor in production.
The possibility of lead in Pompeii's water is also re-examined, highlighting the importance of including findings from new technology and also how quickly learned safety behaviours can be lost in the modern era.
The dyeing kettles in Pompeii were made from lead. Given how fragile lead is, this was anomalous from an engineering perspective - the kettles had to withstand high temperature and the weight of water to allow dyeing, which lead is unable to do. This was confirmed when finding evidence of 'lead creep' in the surviving kettles.
A mordant is the 'chemical glue' that binds a dye to a material, allowing dyeing. Once mordanted a material should not be affected by the metal a dyeing kettle has been manufactured from. This highlights further the anomaly of manufacturing kettles from lead.
A simulation of mordant and dyeing in metal kettles accessible to dyers in Pompeii was undertaken. This discovered that each metal interfered chemically with the mordanting process, the dyeing process and, when attempted sequentially, with the mordanting and dyeing process. The greatest effect was during dyeing. It was discovered that the only metal to not have a negative effect on the dye chemistry was lead, the 'neutral kettle'. Oxidised lead was found more beneficial than lead.
Prior to this study it had been thought that mordanted material would be unaffected by the dyeing kettle. This experiment showed that the material can be affected at any stage of the process and that the dyers in Pompeii had chosen lead, despite its physical disadvantages, due to its chemical properties. These were entirely new findings.
A brief introduction to experimental work undertaken at the conference.
Previously this study has demonstrated the importance of metal choice for construction of a dyeing apparatus - it was found that even materials that had been mordanted and dyed were heavily influenced by the kettle material. This complete re-run of the dyeing experiment confirmed the original visual findings, while also giving samples of mordants, dyes, fabrics and yarns that can now receive chemical analysis to see the absorption of each type of metal (lead, lead oxide, iron, copper) at each stage of the dyeing process. Material samples are to be buried to allow later analysis of the impact of burial in archaeological textiles. Additionally, this experiment highlighted the need for repetition - using natural dye stuffs results in subtle variations during identical processes, which would remain undetected without repetition.
As new findings emerged, this study transferred from a Department of Archaeological Science to a School of Engineering, while simultaneously receiving academic supervision from Archaeological and Classical specialisms. Experimental archaeology was used within a new experimental approach and paradigm, allowing new methods, unforeseen discoveries and creating a foundation for further research.
Presented 22nd September 2018 at TRACamp, Vindolanda.
Session: A place for experiment in Roman archaeology.
Abstract: Before this study, understanding the dyeing industry of Pompeii was through applying dyeing theory to a superficial measurement of remains. This study was the first to construct full-scale replicas of apparatus and determine their practical capabilities. The findings allowed construction of the first digital replica of a multi-material artefact which simulated physical properties. The dyeing industry was found to be small enough to rely on imports. Collaboration with textile specialists led to further experiments, showing how the materials were chosen. This study highlights the importance of embedding research in practical experience, experiment and crafts knowledge to maintain the findings’ integrity.
This study began in the realm of classics and archaeology, but moved into engineering. At each stage all evidence used and each finding gained had to be validated by each field of expertise. Differences between subjects of definition and approach expanded the questions asked, leading to unexpected outcomes that continually challenged the theoretical foundation and practical predictions. An overlap of experiment and experience led to an understanding of the scale of the dyeing industry of Pompeii, which on presentation to craft specialists was de-constructed and re-formed.
Without ‘mistakes’ this study would not have evolved. It is only through making mistakes that this study has expanded its theoretical and practical foundation, resulting in a better triangulated and accurate understanding.
Sixth European Textilforum. Laboratory of Experimental Archaeology, Mayen (part of RGZM Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz). 2015.
Sixth European Textilforum. Laboratory of Experimental Archaeology, Mayen (part of RGZM Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz). 2015.
Sixth European Textilforum. Laboratory of Experimental Archaeology, Mayen (part of RGZM Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz). 2015.
Possible answers only emerged during exchange with a professional historic dyer, whose craft experience lead to a reinterpretation of the apparatus. An experiment was undertaken to investigate the effects on the wool dyeing process of iron, copper or lead when used as a kettle material. Two dyes were tested and both gave spectacular, unforeseen results that have allowed a better understanding of the Romans’ choice.
The dyeing kettles were manufactured from lead, but health and safety considerations meant that lead could not be used in the replica. Stainless steel provided a thermal and physical match in this context, giving the same cycle time and fuel requirement. This substitution was valid, but opened wider questions about replications.
The kettles in Pompeii had been subject to creep. As using lead was not possible and as the time to failure of the kettles was unknown, a virtual kettle was constructed in a computer program and Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was used to replicate weight and temperature over time. The lead data used was defined during this study. This project was the first to use FEA to test an artefact at temperature, of mixed materials, including a metal and over time. Using FEA opened up a new way to replicate artefacts that could not be replicated due to time, safety or expense.
Lead is physically unstable and so a questionable choice over iron or copper. Exchange with a professional historic dyer lead to a reinterpretation of the apparatus. Experiments at Textilforum 2012 investigated the chemical effects of using iron, copper or lead as a dyeing kettle. Two dyes were tested and both gave spectacular, unforeseen results that have allowed a better understanding of the Romans’ choice.
All three of these parts of this research answered specific archaeological questions, while also forming a foundation for new approaches.
This is the first publication of the survey data and FEA coding in full.
Introduction, Heather Hopkins and Katrin Kania
1. On the terminology of non-woven textile structures and techniques, and why it matters
Ruth Gilbert
2. A new notation system for nålbinding stitches
Harma Piening
3. Lost weaving tablets: Identifying weaving tablets during excavation
Heather Hopkins
4. Romans, intimately. New thoughts on reconstruction and purpose of use of Roman Empire and Late Antiquity ‘tanga briefs’
Julia B. Krug-Ochmann
5. Linen sprang from Lengberg Castle
Beatrix Nutz
6. Early Byzantine embroidery techniques and an unusual tunic in the Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Mainz
Petra Linscheid
7. Late Antique resist-dyeing technique
Katrin Kania, Sabine Ringenberg, with contributions from Sabine Schrenk
8. The influence of metal kettle materials on the mordanting and dyeing outcome
Katrin Kania, Heather Hopkins and Sabine Ringenberg
9. The supply of water to the dyeing workshops of Pompeii
Heather Hopkins
1. A conference from the Craftsperson's Perspective. Introduction to the European Textile Forum (Sabine Ringenberg & Katrin Kania)
2. The Spinning Experiment – Influences on Yarn in Spinning with a Handspindle (Katrin Kania)
3. Structural considerations for understanding historical tablet weaving (Sarah Goslee)
4. The Use of Craft Skills in Historical Textile Research (Viktoria Holmqvist)
5. The 13th -16th Century tablet-woven bands from Estonia (Ave Matsin)
6. Textile Techniques of the Stone Ages (Anne Reichert)
7. Tracing production processes and craft culture – the reconstruction of the Gunnister Man costume (Martin Ciszuk & Lena Hammarlund)
8. Reconstructing the dyeing industry of Pompeii through experimental archaeology: the challenges and rewards of a new approach (Heather Hopkins)"
The extent of the textiles industry at Pompeii is debated in current literature. Furthermore, the influence of the kettle, mordant, dyes, yarn thickness, cloth, water, etc is poorly understood. In this study an experimental archaeological replicate of the Pompeii dyeing vats were reproduced. Wool yarn was mordanted with alum, then dyed with fresh birch leaves. Simulation of different metal kettles was then achieved by the additional of metal plates, including copper, lead, oxidised lead and iron. Wool fibres were then measured using high power microscopy and SEM-XRD. Wool sample have been buried in anoxic conditions, where physical and chemical hydrolysis is expected to occur, as the textile is degraded into smaller fragments. Physical biodegradation caused by microorganisms causes disruption of the microstructure which can be seen using the SEM. The first results of this investigation will be presented.