F. Goya (c. 1815–1828), Portrait of Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy (1809–1847), 16 y., Bordeaux 1825, oil on canvas, dimensions 42 x 33 cm
- Portrait of Felix Mendelssohn
The wealthy banker Abraham Mendelssohn traveled to Paris on business in 1825, arriving there with his son Felix Mendelssohn on March 22, 1825. The trip proved pivotal for the young man, who hoped to pursue a career as a musician; but first, as was customary, he had to introduce himself to the leading figures in his field. Luigi Cherubini remarked: “This boy is talented, he will be successful, he already is. But he spends too much money, he pays too much attention to his clothing.” During his stay in Paris, Felix M. composed his “Kyrie in D minor for choir and orchestra” as a demonstration of his talent, in which he drew directly upon Cherubini’s style.
On his return journey from Paris to Berlin on May 20, 1825, Felix Mendelssohn performed his latest piano quartet—No. 3 in B minor, Op. 3—for the great poet Goethe. Mendelssohn played the piano part himself. The B-minor piano quartet, Op. 3, had been completed shortly before, prior to his departure from Paris. The fact that Op. 3 was dedicated to Goethe suggests that the work was deliberately brought along on the return journey for the purpose of being performed in Weimar.
It now seemed advisable for the aspiring musician to make a name for himself as soon as possible with a portrait in the Louvre’s Salon. In the portrait of his youth from 1825, as in many others, he wears the same jeweled white gold brooch. Numerous comparative images from different phases of his life underscore the similarities with the portrait of his youth.
A detailed analysis of the physiognomic features confirms the correspondence of the unchanging characteristics (face shape, forehead, mouth, nose, eyes, brow ridges, eye/brow angles, hairline, hair growth, etc.). The identification as Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy has been confirmed not only by art and music historians but also by the tools of facial recognition (AI).
To determine the degree of similarity between the portrait of Mendelssohn as a young man and other depictions of him (i.e., Vernet, Hildebrandt, photographs, and pencil drawings, see below) using AI, key visual features such as facial features, hairstyle, gaze, clothing style, and artistic execution are analyzed. These features (hair, face, clothing, period, etc.) strongly suggest this identification: The visual similarities between the images and the recognized portraits of Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy lead to the strong conclusion that these images depict one and the same person. The resemblance is striking; it is almost identical, “it is probably one and the same person.” The person depicted is Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy (1809–1847), a German composer, pianist, and conductor of the Romantic era.
By the age of twelve, he had already composed five string symphonies, three singspiels, and other works. The portrait, dated 1825, was created during a significant period in Felix Mendelssohn’s life: Just three months later, in the autumn of that year, he composed his famous String Octet in E-flat major, Op. 20. The instrumentation of four violins, two viols, and two cellos represented an innovation in chamber music of the time. “His youthful energy, brilliance, and perfection make the piece a marvel of 19th-century music” (Conrad Wilson). This work is considered a milestone in chamber music and was one of Mendelssohn’s first major successes. At seventeen, another stroke of genius in the spirit of early Romanticism followed: the Midsummer Night’s Dream Overture (Op. 21) in 1826.
The Painting
Several characteristic features correspond strikingly with authentic portraits of Mendelssohn (an oval, finely modeled face; large, slightly melancholic eyes; a narrow, straight nose; a small, closed mouth; dark curly hair with a typical wave formation at the temples; and elegant Biedermeier attire consisting of a black coat and a high neckcloth). The eyes and the soft physiognomic modeling, in particular, match well-known portraits by Eduard Magnus, Wilhelm Hensel, Theodor Hildebrandt, Horace Vernet, and Heinrich Mücke. Overall, the physiognomic correspondence is remarkably high. The attire clearly points to a date around 1825: a high black collar, broad lapels, a white shirtfront, a Romantic-Biedermeier hairstyle, and a characteristic brooch. At this juncture—the beginning of his phase of international success—the sitter would have been sixteen years old. Stylistically, the painting aligns with the Romantic portrait tradition and early bourgeois Realism. Particularly striking are the very soft transitions within the face, the muted, dark tonality, the psychological depth of characterization, and the absence of a strictly “official” or ceremonial pose—yielding, instead, an intimate, almost introspective effect. The painting technique appears organic and reminiscent of the Old Masters; the craquelure, varnish, and surface texture all appear consistent with the painting’s presumed age, while the physiognomic precision is exceptionally high. The painting conveys a credible Romantic psychological depth, devoid of exaggerated idealization, and exhibits a natural, painterly aging process as well as an authentically Biedermeier color palette. The subtle, asymmetrical facial features suggest that the work was executed *ad vivum* (from life) rather than being a later, idealized reconstruction. The portrait features sensitive rendering of the flesh tones, excellent handling of light, convincingly executed eyes, and an elegant reduction to the essentials. A somewhat schematic depiction of the drapery, background, and shoulders likely points to a specific artistic statement. The portrait appears significantly more convincing than later idealized depictions
2. Encounter between Mendelssohn and Goya
The canvas has been relined. Relining and varnishing/restoration can smooth the brushstrokes somewhat, soften the microrelief, and reduce the legibility of the lines, yet the original brushwork usually remains recognizable. However, what is crucial is not smoothness per se, but rather the controlled restlessness, corrections, or layering logic discernible in the paint structure.
Goya’s move from Spain to Bordeaux brought a change in the frame-format of his works. The painting’s dimensions (42 x 33 cm) correspond exactly to the “Figure-Format No. 6″—a standard size for portraits and figure paintings established in France around 1820. The other paintings from his Bordeaux period were also executed using French (rather than Spanish) standard formats. The small-scale portraits (such as those of J.B. Muguiro and R. Satué), in particular, adhere to this “Figure-Format No. 6.” Given that several authenticated Bordeaux portraits align closely with this French figure format, a small portrait measuring F 6 (41 x 33 cm) would fit perfectly into the pattern of materials and studio practices characteristic of Goya’s Bordeaux period.
However, the front face of the stretcher frame and the painted area do not coincide exactly. A narrow strip of ground, approximately 23 mm wide, is visible above the painted background area. This strip was evidently covered by a mounting strip or rebate, meaning the actual painting begins only below that point. Goya did not typically execute his portraits within a strictly defined rectangular area; instead, he allowed the composition to evolve organically during the painting process. The final framing or cropping of the image was determined only at the stretching or framing stage. There is no evidence that Goya confined his painting strictly to the front face of the stretcher frame. This approach reflects a free studio practice that differs markedly from the academic painting conventions of the time.
A homogeneous waffle pattern of the canvas, partially translucent in infrared reflectography (IRR), reveals the palette knife technique used. This also means that the individual paint layers (e.g., the ground) are visible through the canvas. The layered structure is an initial indication of Goya’s process-oriented working method, the absence of an academic signature suggests the painterly development of the figure within the image, and the tonal construction achieved through the use of light. The combination of tonal reduction and expressive micro-restlessness corresponds to the documented tendency in Goya’s work during his later years.
A meeting between Mendelssohn and Goya took place in Bordeaux in April/May 1825. At that time, Goya was almost forgotten in his homeland. His importance in Bordeaux was only rediscovered with an exhibition of his works in 1860. Goya was still unknown in 1848, when, after Mendelssohn’s death in 1847, his family sorted through his estate. His brother, relatives, and friends decided how to handle the legacy of more than 10,000 letters, selectively preserving only those documents of musical and aesthetic value, while discarding accounts of private matters (e.g., travelogues).
Between April 20 and May 3, the frequency of his letters dropped significantly. This gap in correspondence did not go unnoticed. In a letter to Felix dated April 11/12, 1824, his sister Nanni hinted at a reproach, suggesting that Felix was telling her far too little about his experiences in Paris. The Leipzig edition of the letters (2008) confirms—specifically for the period from roughly April 20/21 to May 10, 1825—a timeframe that would have been sufficient for a trip to Bordeaux.
The trip was firmly planned, as Abraham Mendelssohn had business to attend to in Bordeaux. The Abraham Mendelssohn Bank financed international trade; many of its transactions were conducted via major trading hubs such as Paris, Bordeaux, Hamburg, Amsterdam, and London. Around 1825, Bordeaux was a particularly important European center for colonial goods, overseas trade, credit operations, and insurance. The visit was also intended to include a meeting with Mlle. Milan. Although the father had already inquired in vain about her address while in Paris, the plan was to see the lady later in Toulouse.
Apparently, the plan was for father and son to make the journey to Bordeaux together. His sister Fanny therefore seized the opportunity (in her letter of April 11 and 12, 1825) to write: “I would like to remind dear Father—kindly and humbly, for once—of Mlle. Milan; I send my warmest regards to them both.” Felix, however, showed little enthusiasm; in his reply to Fanny (April 20/22, 1825), he wrote: “…and now I am supposed to visit Mlle. Milan—who is staying at an estate not far from Bordeaux, if I am not mistaken—which is really asking too much.” It was to no avail, however; Father Abraham likely remained unmoved. Given the established order within the Mendelssohn household, the son was expected to obey. A strict patriarchy dominated the life of the traditional Jewish family. The father ruled despotically; dissent was not tolerated. Throughout his life, Mendelssohn struggled against the high expectations of this powerful superego. The iron rule within the Mendelssohn household appears to be solid evidence of the visit Felix Mendelssohn actually paid to Bordeaux in 1825. The despotism of the Mendelssohn family’s domestic patriarchy virtually guarantees that a trip to Bordeaux took place; it is the equivalent of written confirmation.
The painting was created during Goya’s exile in Bordeaux, where Felix Mendelssohn had stayed in 1825 at his father’s behest. The Leipzig edition of the letters (2008) confirms—specifically for the period from approx. April 20/21 to approx. May 10, 182—a timeframe for a trip to Bordeaux involving a portrait sitting.
A strict patriarchy governed the life of the traditional Jewish family. The father ruled despotically. He ruled with an iron fist and tolerated no dissent. Throughout his life, Mendelssohn struggled with the high expectations of a powerful superego. Consequently, the son was forced to undertake the journey to Bordeaux demanded by his father. The iron rule within the Mendelssohn household appears to be evidence of the visit Felix Mendelssohn paid to Bordeaux in 1825. The despotism within the domestic patriarchy of the Mendelssohn family guarantees the trip to Bordeaux; it is the equivalent of a written confirmation.
As was his custom, Felix Mendelssohn made himself acquainted with the country and its people. As usual, he was interested in the local artists. Based on the impressions he gained in Paris, Mendelssohn knew which painter would make him famous in the Salons. Besides Goya, the extensive Vernet family of artists also lived in Bordeaux at that time. Mendelssohn was able to build on the acquaintance he had made with the Vernets in Bordeaux six years later during his stay in Rome in 1831. There, the painter Horace Vernet portrayed him.
Was Goya, given his poor health, even able to receive visitors or paint portraits?
Fig. 3 F. Goya Self-Portrait with Dr. Arrieta, 1820
Despite his frailty, Goya also experienced periods of recovery, though not complete healing. In June 1825, as was his custom, Goya requested a third extension of his stay in Bordeaux due to illness. The petition from his doctors to the royal court in Madrid was dated May 29, 1825, while Mendelssohn’s visit had already taken place in April/early May. Sources report a short but intense creative period at the beginning of May (cf. Fauque, J. et al. 1982). It was precisely during this period that Mendelssohn arrived in Bordeaux.
Mendelssohn had to be mindful of Goya’s health. Time was short, the stay brief. The sitting had to be conducted quickly and therefore required careful preparation. The canvas was fully primed and framed. But it may also indicate the post-war period when there was a shortage of materials for painting, and Goya had a habit of reusing canvases and painting over finished works.
3. Signature
Goya paid no heed to his infirmities; he painted constantly, and he signed his works. His signatures varied considerably, sometimes tiny, sometimes grand. Goya had a habit of occasionally signing with a dedication, letting his signature swell into lavish flourishes, playfully signing his paintings multiple times (e.g., “The Blind Man’s Bluff”), or hiding the signature as if in a picture puzzle.
The lower part of the “G” was visibly executed with light pressure, resulting in a certain spreading of color pigments at the tapering end, in the shape of a hockey stick. At this point, a reduction in the number of color pigments was to be expected.
F. Goya, F. Mendelssohn B, Signature, Brushstroke, Craquelure, Photo in UV Light
To reconstruct the lost color pigments in Francisco de Goya’s signature on the painting using artificial intelligence (AI), the differences between the two image sections 5.1 (top: normal, bottom: false-color representation) are analyzed below. The lower image highlights details and pigments that are not visible in the upper image.
In the lower image (false-color representation), gray-greenish lines of a handwritten signature are visible. An underline ends at a point; above it, the shadows of a letter are only faintly discernible. The writing can be read as “F. Goya” or simply “Goya” with the remnant of a preceding initial that resembles an “F.” The style is slightly curved, with a pronounced “G” and a shortened “F.”
A scientific report (Prof. Heydenreich, TH Köln Art Sciences) states regarding the “Goya/Mendelssohn” signature: “The lettering is accompanied by an underline. Based on our light-microscopic assessment, the paint used for this lies directly on the paint layer and has not visibly penetrated the craquelure; thus, this inscription could have been applied shortly after the portrait was created.”
The same fractures are present as in the underlying paint layer. The craquelure lines run across the writing rather than beneath it; the writing therefore lies beneath the varnish and was created at the same time as the paint layer. The signature was applied to the original paint layer; it has aged along with it and was not added at a later date. This conclusion is confirmed by microscopic analysis.
The signature was painted thinly in silver-grey oil paint—tiny, measuring only 1.8 cm. It contains very few pigment particles. (Loss of pigment can occur during cleaning.) It was applied—small, fluid, and smooth—using a fine brush and oil paint (not a chalk pencil). The handwriting of the signature falls within the range of Goya’s genuine script. The consistent slant, the shape and structure of the letters, and the dense, rhythmic flow are typical of Goya. There are no breaks or interruptions in the ductus; the brushstroke comes from a single, steady hand. The signature is characterized by a continuous flow executed in one large sweep—a feat an imitator could not achieve without trembling. If the work were not by Goya, it would have to be a contemporary piece by a painter who possessed technical mastery, thought psychologically like Goya, and was simultaneously capable of executing an authentic signature *in situ*—a scenario that is extremely unlikely.
Conclusion: The signature matches the surrounding area in terms of materials and layering; it shares the same pigments and exhibits consistent craquelure patterns as well as identical UV and IR behavior. It is materially and structurally integrated. The craquelure pattern is continuous, extending across both the signature and the adjacent paint zones without interruption or signs of secondary overlay. No anomalous fluorescence is observed under UV light. Microscopic examination revealed that the pigments and binding medium of the signature match those of the surrounding original paint layer. The signature was applied in oil onto the original paint layer; it exhibits the same cracking pattern without the paint having seeped into the fissures (craquelure), indicating that it was created contemporaneously and has aged alongside the painted surface, rather than having been added at a later date. There is no evidence of any anomalies or grounds for suspicion. The signature must have been created during Mendelssohn’s visit to Bordeaux in April/May 1825.
4. Age and State of Preservation
As is not uncommon with old and valuable paintings, the painting has been relined. Based on its state of preservation, it can be dated to the first third of the 19th century. The relining reveals, in places, a sandy-yellow ground on the canvas. Goya used this ground frequently; it appears, among other places, as the sandy-yellow trousers of the rebel in Goya’s painting “The Third of May 1808” (Fig. 8). The yellowish ground also shimmers through in other paintings (Figs. 9, 10). The Flemish painter A. van Dyck had already employed this technique of “seeding through.” In the portrait of Mendelssohn, the ground is partially visible as sandy yellow.
Do the proportions provide a clue to the age of the Mendelssohn portrait? A shift in the artistic canon in the 19th century. While he did prefer narrow, sloping shoulders, elongated legs or arms—in other words, altered body proportions—for aesthetic reasons, Goya had already employed these stylized proportions in other paintings, most notably in the portrait of the young Francisco Javier Goya y Bayeu, 1805. (Fig. 11)
Fig. 11 F. Goya, Francisco Javier Goya y Bayeu, 1805
These slender proportions are therefore by no means an exclusive characteristic of the second half of the 19th century. Mendelssohn’s physical constitution at the age of only 16 necessitated the depiction of a youthful appearance.
5. Artist Portraits around 1800
The stylized representation of proportions in artist portraits (Goya/Mendelssohn) is related to social ideals of spirituality and representation. In the class-based society, the body symbolized power, status, and presence, while in bourgeois society, it tended to represent private sensibility. Mendelssohn’s slender figure reflects the Romantic conception of genius.
In portraits of artists or scholars, the body was often refined or elongated, characterized by narrow shoulders, a long neck, slender hands, and a relatively large head. These features direct the viewer’s gaze to the face and expression—that is, to personality, intellect, and sensitivity. Already the introspective gaze suggests a sensitive individual: The early Romantic style favored melancholic, vulnerable figures for the sensitive artist with delicate physiognomy, a slightly tilted head, a slender silhouette, and dark clothing against a neutral background. These features portrayed an introverted personality of elegance, intellectual superiority, and sensitivity.
Goya’s stylistic devices for the proportional “excess length” in the portrait of F. Mendelssohn are:
Neck: elongated. The neck is slightly longer than anatomically normal: the distance from chin to collar is greater than usual. The neck slopes very smoothly and slenderly downwards, the base of the neck disappearing deep into the coat. Mendelssohn appears more upright, aristocratic, and intellectual. The head rises above the body.
Narrower shoulders: slightly drawn inwards, the coat or collar conceals the true shoulder width.
Head: The head is slightly disproportionately large compared to the torso, shifting the focus to expression and personality; the body appears comparatively more delicate and slender. The head is more important than the body.
Vertical lines: portrait-format canvas, the coat or lapels create long downward lines, the background without horizontal distractions. The lines draw the eye downwards and create a sense of length.
Clothing: dark as an optical silhouette; the dark surface merges with the background, body contours become less distinct, the face appears lighter and more dominant. The body appears visually slimmer as a result. Optical narrowing is achieved through the coat and shadow. The coat forms a dark mass, its edges partially blurred into the background. The actual body contours are difficult to discern. The shoulders appear narrower than they actually are. The viewer’s gaze ultimately rests on the facial triangle (eyes-nose-mouth).
The body is turned: a slight three-quarter view, with one shoulder closer to the viewer, the body slightly rotated, visually reducing the width of the torso.
The shoulder line is set lower than anatomically correct and softly rounded. The neck appears longer, the head higher, and the figure thus gains elegance. This effect is further enhanced by the dark coat.
However, the strongest stylistic device is the elongated neck area created by the lowered shoulders. Together with the dark coat and the slightly enlarged head, this creates the typical Romantic artist’s appearance: slender, sensitive, and intellectually sophisticated. The most striking deviation in the portrait is apparently not in the face, but in the neck and shoulder area. There, the body is “lengthened” by approximately 10–20%.
Besides the neck and shoulder area, there is a second distortion in this portrait that strongly contributes to a melancholic impression: the combination of a slightly slanted eye line and a minimally tilted head. Although this deviation is only a few degrees, it has a powerful psychological effect. The head tilt of just 5–10° immediately creates an impression of less dominance, more sensitivity, and an introverted demeanor. The eye line is not exactly horizontal. In Mendelssohn’s portrait, the line, which is normally horizontal, is slightly tilted due to the slight head tilt and minimal asymmetrical modeling of the eyelids. One eye is set slightly lower. This small downward offset creates a sense of liveliness and emotional tension.
The eye (the left and the right) is designed differently in color, brightness and elaboration (e.g. Galos, Gumersinda, Bayeu, et al.) A minimal squint (strabismus invergens) reinforces the impression of internal tension (cf. Mendelssohn-IRR, Moratin, Cuervo, Sauté, Galos, Maguiro, Count Kaunitz, de Puga, Bayeu, Pignatelli) Mendelssohn’s gaze is directed slightly below the viewer’s eye level. The gaze is not quite straight ahead. The pupils are positioned slightly below the ideal midline. This creates a pensive expression, a touch of melancholy, and an impression of inner reflection. The deviation is approximately 2–3 mm in the image, or a few degrees of tilt.
The viewer’s eye perceives these proportions relatively rather than absolutely; it interprets them meaningfully rather than mechanically. However, when all these small shifts interact (neck, shoulders, head size), our brain processes them holistically und we still accept the image as “natural.”
The tilted head and slightly slanted eyes create the typical Romantic artist’s face: sensitive, introspective, and intellectually focused. This effect perfectly matches the early Romantic iconography of artists, which also appears in other portraits by Francisco Goya. A geometric analysis of portraits of artists, scholars, and intellectuals often reveals a recurring pattern: the head is slightly tilted, the eyes minimally slanted, and the neck elongated. Composers (Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn) were almost always depicted as slimmer and more intellectual than poets (Moratin, Goethe, Kleist) or scientists (J.R. Forster, A. von Humboldt).
The slender, intellectual portrayal of composers is no accident, but rather an iconographic pattern of the 19th century that presented music as a particularly immaterial and spiritual art. Music was understood as a purely intellectual art form. Philosophers like Arthur Schopenhauer described music as the most direct expression of the spirit. Portraits of scholars, on the other hand, were meant to demonstrate rationality and authority. From 1750 to 1900, portraits of composers became increasingly slender and introspective. The romantic image of the artist reached its zenith around 1850.
6. Characterization of Mendelssohn
An important step to individual characterization is Goyas portrait Don Evaristo Pérez de Castro (1806)
The statesman Don Evaristo Pérez de Castro appears devoid of any courtly trappings. Over the subsequent twenty years, Goya further evolved his style toward a freer, more impasto, and even Impressionist approach regarding composition, brushwork, the rendering of skin tones, lighting, and psychological modeling. In the portrait of de Castro, Goya aims to depict the archetype of the cultivated intellectual. Here, too, the resemblance to the Mendelssohn portrait is unmistakable: the head is tilted toward the viewer, and the hand holding a writing instrument and paper alludes to intellectual activity. It is not courtly display, but rather concentration and intellectual presence that are drawn forth from an indeterminate space.
The flesh tones are warm and modeled with subtle transitions; the eyes are lively, slightly asymmetrical, and alert. The head serves as the primary focus of the light. Focused illumination from the front left causes the face and shirt to emerge into the light while the body recedes into darkness. It is not theatrical spotlighting that impresses, but a quiet, intellectual presence. In the portrait of de Castro, the background is dark, neutral, and non-narrative. Characterizing a young person like the sixteen-year-old Mendelssohn—whose future lies open before him—calls for a finely tuned, light background rather than a dark one. The stylistic device of a light background would later become part of Goya’s pictorial strategy for depicting youth (see below). Tension arises from slight asymmetries—in posture, the tilt of the head, the gaze, the mouth, and the shadows—that define the subject’s character. In the portraits of de Castro (1806) and Mendelssohn (1825), Goya portrays intellectual presence rather than social status.
The musical genius was considered in Europe to be Beethoven’s successor and was even called the Mozart of the 19th century. Goya was extraordinarily impressed by his personality and talents, both musical and artistic. A. de Brugada, himself a gifted virtuoso pianist, was tasked with writing about Mendelssohn’s music. Goya loved music; he bought a piano for his housekeeper’s daughter and had her taught. Since he couldn’t hear her playing, he watched her fingerwork.
Goya like Mendelssohn possessed a dual talent. A. de Brugada reports: “Since he could work in all art forms, he would have become a great musician if he had not had the desire to become a great painter, and if, moreover, he had not become deaf at the age of forty, like Beethoven.” (cf. Laurent Matheron, 1858, pp. 60/132)
Just as Goya was drawn to music, the versatile Mendelssohn could, conversely, have also become a painter. He had already received thorough training in painting, and it was clear to him which portraitist he should choose for his portrait. On the other hand, Goya recognized the genius, noting his noble appearance, his elegant humor, and the high level of his reflection. Mendelssohn was a sensitive artist of the highest order. A portrait demanded an empathetic characterization.
Musicians and the theme of music played a role in Goya’s life—particularly during his later years—in two distinct ways: through his close friendships with musicians (such as Boccherini and Brugada) and his ongoing artistic engagement with musical motifs. Although Goya had been completely deaf since a severe illness in 1792–93, he surrounded himself with musicians throughout his life and possessed a profound understanding of the art form. Unable to hear music anymore, he channeled his musical memories into his paintings. A key work from this period in Bordeaux is *The Blind Singer* (*El cantor ciego*); it depicts a blind man playing the guitar and singing, surrounded by somber, almost demonic faces in the background.
A single seated figure—featuring a wide-brimmed hat and a guitar—serves as the central motif, rendered with freely vibrating linework and stark chiaroscuro against a highly simplified, dark background. Expressive lines, combined with a dense network of hatching, loose contours, and deliberate blurring, evoke an introspective mood of melancholy. Trapped in a world of darkness, the the guitar turns entirely towards the listener. The figure appears withdrawn—almost ghostly—yet deeply human, embodying vulnerability. For Goya, living in deafness, music symbolized the human inner experience—particularly the melancholic aspect, a theme he had previously explored in works such as „The Blind Guitarist“ (1778).
In Goya’s late oeuvre, such figures often appear as quiet anthropological studies. „Aveugle assis, chantant“ (Blind Seated Singer) belongs to the body of graphic works created by Francisco de Goya during his time in Bordeaux (1824–1828). The depiction of a blind singer fuses Spanish folk tradition with the existential visual language of his later years. Characteristic features include the pared-down composition, free hatching, and a focus on the isolated figure. The loose, almost sketchy rendering of forms clearly illustrates the evolution of Goya’s late Bordeaux style. The encounter with F. Mendelssohn B. had been anticipated.
Goya’s late portraits differ markedly from his earlier paintings; they are generally darker, less representational, more psychological, often depicted in a melancholic manner. Figures appear less idealized, the background is remarkably still, and there is a strong focus on facial expression. Goya’s painting style becomes even more psychologically complex. He emphasizes inner life and expression. Psychological significance takes center stage; there is hardly any “glorious representation,” but rather a more sober view of human life.
In contrast to Descartes’ view of separating body and soul, Goethe demanded that one must learn to understand human life from within. The Dresden physician Carl Gustav Carus (1789-1869) subsequently developed the concept of psycho – analysis: “The key to understanding the nature of conscious mental life lies in the realm of the unconscious.” (C.G. Carus, Lectures on Psychology, Dresden 1829)
7. Choice of Painting Style for a Genius
Goya varied his painting style in all phases of his work, depending on the genre and the personality of his subjects. Soon after arriving in his place of exile in 1824, Goya visited Paris for several weeks to gain an impression of contemporary art, especially lithography, by visiting museums and engaging with artists and intellectuals. In Paris, Goya had befriended the young E. Delacroix. By the time Mendelssohn arrived in the city, Goya had already left a few weeks earlier, but not without having made a lasting impression in the circles where even a disciple of art like Mendelssohn moved.
The psychological characterization in Goya’s late work is often emphasized, but in reality, it is rarely achieved. Goya characterized his subjects “in order to make their essence tangible as if they were alive…” (Gudrun Maurer, Art. Portraits…“ in: Martin Schwander et al. (eds.), exhibition catalogue “Goya”, Fondation Beyeler Basel 2021, p. 128) The author , however, attributes the “mostly serious, sometimes even melancholic facial expression” solely to specific social conditions, namely the instability of the revolutionary era in Spain. A psychological or sociological analysis is conspicuously absent.
The iconography (image description) of pictorial representations of musicians is an extraordinarily broad field: Here, musicology and art history, philosophy, psychology, sociology, medicine, and cultural anthropology intersect. One must also expect that a theory of portraiture would be known, the use of AI-supported image analysis would be familiar, and a rigorous historical investigation would be a given. In that monumental exhibition catalog of the Beyeler Foundation (“Goya”), the “graphic phase” in Goya’s late work or his collaboration with the Vernet family is not mentioned even once! It may be surprising that while all the aforementioned disciplines were involved in the investigations into Goya’s portrait of Felix Mendelssohn, as well as in other discoveries (e.g. Mozart, Chopin), art history was unfortunately absent!
How did Goya account for the uniqueness of genius? The Mendelssohn portrait with its deep-set eyes reflects the personality of the “melancholic type” in its serene form, intellectual tension, and solemn dignity. The modern version of this type allows for a withdrawal, visible in the wide-open eye sockets, into an inner psyche, an openness to absorbing environmental influences. The classical model for the “melancholic type” originates from ancient theories of personality. The four humors theory (Hippocrates, Galen) states that the melancholic is characterized by black bile and a tendency towards melancholy. According to Aristotle (Problemata XXX), melancholy is the hallmark of exceptional minds. Since antiquity, with artists like Dürer, Rembrandt, and van Dyck, the “melancholic type” has been associated with education and genius. Goya uses artistic strategies to make this type tangible. It was the prevailing personality theory around 1825. Goya uses artistic strategies to make this type tangible.
In the portrait of Mendelssohn, the melancholic type is easily recognizable: In a room with an empty background devoid of status symbols, the sitter appears detached from the world and isolated. Free from conventions, he can create his own world. Loneliness envelops the genius. The soaring hairstyle befits the brilliant mind. His eyes are large, open, and expressive. His large, calm eyes amplify her attentive and intelligent gaze.(s.a. Portrait Moratin, 1798)
The iris, as is often the case with philosophers, poets, and artists, is knowingly positioned above the horizontal axis of the eye. A gaze emanating from within suggests resigned reserve or thoughtful withdrawal. A veil of introversion in the lifeless, pale light of the background indicates that the essential processes take place internally. Not expressive brilliance, but contemplative thought animates the young man. In a state of melancholy, the self is overwhelmed by unconscious forces; the individual becomes a victim of his own thought world. (“El sueño de la razón produce monstruos”) The mouth remains closed, as expected. There is hardly any visible movement of expression; the features appear serious. A serene, reason-based calm characterizes the stoic philosopher.
Nevertheless, slight asymmetries conceal inner tensions. Pale skin tones and slightly shadowed eye sockets reveal vulnerability and exhaustion. The posture and shoulders are slightly pulled forward under the weight of inner pressure. The light casts a soft, gently sculpting illumination on the face, without disturbing the inner processes through dramatic effects. Subdued colors create a restrained atmosphere appropriate to the emotional state. Alongside impasto brushstrokes, one can also discern finer ones. Goya could only do justice to Mendelssohn’s noble features with the most delicate painting technique.
The melancholic type is a personality of sensitivity, education, and genius. The “melancholic character” pervades the entire painting and, like the other paintings from Goya’s “graphic phase” (see below), uniquely distinguishes it from the vast body of his work. In addition to the psychological characterization, a socio-historical structural feature of the stratified society of the 18th century is also striking.
A direct, equal encounter had to be the intention of a musician striving to establish a dialogue with their audience; a persuasive affection takes the place of class-based self-presentation. For the class-based staging demanded a view from “top to bottom,” so that the viewer was forced to look “from bottom to top” — upward toward the dominance of a person of higher rank in the social hierarchy. The style differed around 1800.
A good example of Goya’s portrait painting, in which he focuses more on the personality of the sitter than on decoration or status is his Portrait of Ferrer . It is a psychological portrait that focuses on personality and inner life rather than external appearance.
Through the use of dark colors, strong light contrasts, simple composition, and a serious expression, Goya creates a calm but slightly melancholic atmosphere. The painting is a typical example of his late portrait style and shows his interest in realism and human psychology.
The painting style of the period transitioning into the Bordeaux phase is clearly evident in Goya’s portrait of Manuel Silvela (1810):
a dark, atmospheric background, rapid execution of the clothing, a focus on the eyes and face, and a lack of emphasis on minor details. These characteristics are also found in late works, such as the portraits from Goya’s Bordeaux period. While the face and neckerchief are carefully modeled, the coat and background are rendered with broad, partly sketchy brushstrokes. In the gray coat particularly, forms partially dissolve into tonal planes, and individual edges remain deliberately blurred. The painting style displays a painterly freedom characteristic of Goya—one that, through the dissolution of forms and the overall tonal effect, already foreshadows the portraiture of the Bordeaux phase.
Shortly before moving to Bordeaux, Goya painted the portrait of a man who had supported him during the political turmoil in Spain following the collapse of liberalism in 1824. It is considered a significant precursor to his approach to individual characterization.
José Duaso y Latre was a clergyman and scholar. The painting already exhibits many hallmarks of the Bordeaux period: free, loose brushwork; a highly simplified background; psychological characterization; and nuanced lighting in the rendering of the skin tones. A comparison of brushstrokes, paint thickness, lighting, color palette, and surface texture—as is already evident—reveals characteristics typical of Goya’s late style, also seen in the portrait of F. Mendelssohn. Striking similarities appear, above all, in the modeling of light (a bright bridge of the nose, warm light on the forehead, dark eye sockets, and soft shadows beneath the mouth and chin). However, the greatest resemblance lies in the painted surface (dry, slightly grainy, almost chalky in places, with little smoothing, a matte finish devoid of reflections, and minimal relief in the brushstrokes). As a micromorphological analysis shows, the 1825 Mendelssohn portrait is comparable to the portrait of Moratín (1824), which was created shortly before it (see below).
The next stage of his development led to an even stronger expression of realism and psychological characterization. In the “lithographic phase” between 1824 and 1828, additional distinctive features in the depiction of surfaces, contours, and silhouettes were added.
8. The Graphic Phase in F. Goya’s Late Work 1824/26
Although weakened by illness, Goya possessed a strong will to continue painting. As usual, he worked quickly and confidently. Even in his old age, he strove to learn from the graphic art of the Vernet family, to adapt and experiment with it. “Aún aprendo,” “I am still learning.” The collaboration was intense. His acquaintance with the Vernets was revived six years later when Mendelssohn was in Rome.
This self-portrait by Goya with a flowing beard and two crutches, Sketchbook G No. 54 (c. 1824–1828), is inscribed in his own hand with the defiant “Aún aprendo.” It is an expression of proud self-assertion despite frailty and the proximity of death: knowledge, curiosity, and active learning, we learn, do not end with youth or success; they remain integral to a life of freedom until the very end.
In 1824/26, F. Goya turned to other forms of portraiture (small format, austere background, bourgeois patrons, intimate atmosphere). These became paintings for private interiors, rather than courtly representation, such as a bust against a neutral-dark background with the focus almost exclusively on the face. The sitter appears central, almost symmetrical, and meticulously contoured. Dark clothing becomes the “frame” for the pale face (contrast of light and dark). Restrained props, a sparing palette.
Lithography, introduced in 1825, significantly altered the representation of surfaces. In printing techniques like copperplate engraving or etching, surfaces are created indirectly through engraved lines (e.g., hatching). In lithography, however, the artist draws directly on the grease-prepared stone as if it were paper. This allows for the creation of solid tonal areas, softer transitions between light and dark, and the modeling of forms without a grid of lines. Figures emerge from contrasts of surfaces, not from outlines. This new treatment of surfaces necessitates simplified (“homogeneous”) background areas.
Thanks to granular chalk textures, broad shading, and flowing tonal gradients, these images appear more painterly and atmospheric. Large, compact, cohesive blocks of surface appear freer, looser, more sketch-like, but also more irregular. They enable a more dynamic, expressive, and fluid composition. Lithography thus allowed Goya a painterly, tonal-based representation of surfaces. Large areas of light and dark create atmosphere, movement, and drama.
The lithographs leave clear traces in the oil portraits:
The painted surfaces are smoother than usual (e.g., Goya, Portrait of Pignatelli, 1828, to signify the incorruptibility of the meritorious civil servant), but not academically smooth! Goya painted the faces of some women (Pugna, Josefa Bayeu, Gumerscinda) with particular precision, capturing their smooth (!), light complexion, subtly highlighted by a delicate rouge on their cheeks. The surfaces appear as thin layers or partially blended transitions, yet beneath them lie searching structures of inner tension. A smooth surface impression could also be a consequence of relining or varnish removal, reducing the microrelief.
Background: A veil of introversion in the lifeless, pale light of the background suggests that the essential processes take place internally. This serves to psychologically characterize a person of sensitivity, education, and genius. For this reason, the surface is atmospherically designed (see also Goya’s Portrait of Count Kaunitz, 1817), often using glazes/semi-opaque paint with translucent underpainting; edges are not always finished “cleanly.” The lighting and color appear “airy,” the shadows more translucent, vibrant, stylistically “bright,” and technically free. Differences in light are “breathing,” color boundaries emerge through painterly refraction. A sublime epic of tranquility unfolds in the environment that, according to Stoic philosophy, creative genius needs for the “calmness of mind.”
Tonal rather than colorful: muted, almost monochromatic palettes (black, brown, ochre, a few cool accents, e.g., the shirt front with a brooch), a serene overall effect. Dominance of the lighting, tonal reduction instead of coloristic virtuosity. Reduction of the palette, concentration on light and dark. – The painting follows the late tendency toward tonal density. Is the color palette perhaps too limited? This objection is irrelevant. For while pigments may be typical of the period, the working method (layering sequence, optical mixing, traces of correction) is more telling. – Lithography necessitates working with light and dark gradations, strong tonal contrasts, and tonal thinking as in stone. The effect is created, as in printing, through chiaroscuro. Goya favored soft light for warmer, harmonizing tones (e.g., Portrait of Puga, Gumersinda, Mendelssohn). Generally, the palette is sparse, muted, or subdued.
Clear outline and density/silhouette: Heads and hands are defined by the silhouette and a few, dense areas of dark; the background remains neutral. Figures stand with concise contours against a calm, flat background. The viewer’s gaze perceives the form similarly to a lithograph.
Lighting: Dominant, highly focused, faces appear as if sculpted from darkness. A strongly directed light source, clearly defined zones of light, no “uniform” light as with academic painters (see above). Instead, a theatrical chiaroscuro with dramatic intensification in the figures. Characterization of the figures through modeling with hard, soft, or gentle lighting. The figures, illuminated against a neutral background, emerge from the background. The delicate light that envelops the person gives his figure a remarkable realism. Bright faces/collars against a neutral field, strong silhouettes, empty areas serving as carriers of light and meaning.
Goya, Jacques Galos (see above). Sparingly applied highlights (whitish brushstrokes like chalk highlights) on the forehead and hair. The white areas on the shirt/chest are striking. The white is often used as a painterly backdrop (strokes, layer changes, small corrections). The white areas with visible parallel strokes are made visible with Goya-typical, “painterly” corrections/pentimenti.
Brushwork (handling of paint, mode of operation): The working method reveals information about the artistic approach (sketchy lines, loose application of paint, direct expression) or the visible signature in the material, how an artist proceeded while painting: Sketchy, energetic brushstrokes, broad and dry on the shirtfront. The soaring hairstyle befits the brilliant mind. Experimental brushwork, sometimes unusual changes of direction, often searching or tentative. Free strokes, graphic lines, sometimes nervous. Rubbing and smudging marks on the clothing resemble the hatching of abrasive grain in lithography. The very free, quick hand and loosely grouped brushstrokes create the immediacy of a sitting portrait. Goya worked very quickly; the portrait of Felix Mendelssohn was “painted in one go.” The typical texture in Bordeaux conveys movement, energy, and drama.
Bold framing and axes of movement: oblique diagonals in a forward-leaning posture, striking presence and fleeting moment in the gaze, gesture, bending, and turning. A kinship to the dynamic, serially conceived Vernet compositions (horses, hunting, battle). Goya aims for intensified characterization: gaze, cropping, asymmetry.
Goya’s late portraits around 1825 are characterized by lithographically influenced features such as tonality, concise silhouette, empty, smooth painted surfaces, experimental brushstrokes, a process-oriented approach, visible brushwork, muted colors, and the dominance of light.
The Bordeaux works generally display a very loose, almost sketch-like brushwork, vibrant handling of light, a strong psychological presence, and a color effect that anticipates Impressionism. Regarding the portrait of Mendelssohn, the handling of light, the modeling of the eyes, and the brushwork are particularly significant.
9. Comparison of Typical Portraits, Bordeaux, ca. 1825
A systematic comparison of typical portraits created in Bordeaux around 1825 reveals a lack of heroic representation, instead highlighting an intellectual presence under subdued, tonal direction with graphic contours. Inner turmoil prevails over representative smoothness. The portraits in Goya’s late work around 1825 are stylistically very heterogeneous.
These portraits are characterized by their stylistic diversity.
F. Goya, Self-Portrait, 1824
Leandro Fernandez de Moratin (1825)
Tiburcio Pérez y Cuervo, 1820
Ramón Satué (1823)
María Martínez de Puga (1824)
Gumersinda Goicoechea (ca. 1825)
F. Mendelssohn (1825)
Jacques Galos (Jaime Galos) (1826)
Juan Bautista de Muguiro (1827)
Ramón de Pignatelli (1828)
F. Goya, Self-Portrait, 1824, Graphic Phase: Contours and tonal values are composed of short strokes (formerly pointillist dabs).
Leandro Fernandez de Moratin (1798) and later (1825): The light of the Enlightenment falls upon the poet’s forehead. The head emerges as a clear, light form against a solid black background, minimal space, no attributes; rapid, concise modeling of the features; clear focus on the viewer, presence through light/darkness rather than rich color detail. One-sided light appears from the upper left; background almost black. Calm, intellectual concentration, high-set irises, the pensiveness of an intellectual.
Depiction of his friend L. F. de Moratin (1824), the colors become more sparing and muted.
Moratín vs. Mendelssohn in comparison. Both works share a reduced, dark setting, psychological intensity in the mind, tonal lighting, and a non-decorative treatment of fabrics and white areas. The most significant difference is striking: Moratín – quiet composure, Mendelssohn – nervous modernity (a “genius” type). The Mendelssohn painting can thus be understood as a variation within the same late portrait logic.
Basic posture of the figure
Moratín: Presence arises not from gesture, but from the head/gaze. Impression: still, yet alert.
Mendelssohn: The character arises from microscopic restlessness in the forehead, hair, eyes/bridge of the nose, and the whiteness of the shirt. Impression: more alert, more nervous, more modern.
Both are in the mode of the “intellectual character head,” but Moratín appears more resigned and still, while the Mendelssohn painting conveys a more inwardly tense atmosphere.
The Psychology of Gaze
Moratín: The gaze is often interpreted as “inward”—distance, mild fatigue, but clear focus.
Mendelssohn: Restless tracing at the eyes/bridge of the nose creates a vibration in the gaze: not dreamy, but analytically tense.
Goya frequently depicts a person’s psychology along precisely this axis (eye socket–bridge of the nose–line of the mouth) through minimal shifts in tone and line.
Forehead as a “space of thought”
Moratín: The forehead is not academically smoothed, but tonally modeled; the surface remains “breathing.”
Mendelssohn: “Restlessness in the forehead”—that is the modern point. Not melancholy as a pose, but as inner movement.
The forehead appears as a place of intellect/overexertion, not of ideal beauty.
Hairstyle: Not Ornament, but Expression
Moratín: Hair mostly functional, dark-toned, not styled, more mass than decoration.
Mendelssohn: Tufts of hair restless, broken: rhythm instead of decoration, expression of inner musical life.
In Bordeaux, the hair often becomes a zone of additional characterization, where Goya “draws,” not “styles.”
White areas (shirt) as a psychological amplifier
Moratín: White is not just fabric, but serves to direct light—it places the figure in darkness and often bears a visibly painterly surface.
Mendelssohn: The restlessness, even in the white shirtfront, is a strong indication against salon-like, academic painting. An academic portraitist would have harmonized the shirtfront; Goya allows it to move freely and unevenly.
The white becomes a resonating chamber for inner tension.
2. Tiburcio Pérez y Cuervo, 1820, architect and friend; rolled-up sleeves, stark light/dark contrast, relaxed approachability and robust health. Painted after Goya’s serious illness in 1819/20.
Department: European Paintings
Culture/Period/Location:
HB/TOA Date Code:
Working Date: 1820
photographed by mma in 1988, transparency 1a
scanned by film & media 8/16/03 (phc)
3. Ramón Satué (1823), half-length portrait against an almost empty, dark background; open shirtfront, sketchy drawing, smooth surfaces, clear edges, lighting only of the face/white collar; summary, broad brushstrokes, clear outline of the head; highly reduced color palette (black–red–white).
4. María Martínez de Puga (1824): strong contrasts, visible brushwork and simplified color scheme, neutral, almost papery background, bright facial area against a subdued background, soft light appropriate for a young lady. Diagonal lighting, clear brightness on the face and hands, conveys a confident yet dignified severity, clearly defined and full of character.
Doña María Martínez de Puga, 1824
oil on canvas
31 1/2 in. x 23 in. (80.01 cm x 58.42 cm)
Henry Clay Frick Bequest.
Accession number: 1914.1.63
5. Gumersinda Goicoechea (c. 1825), married to Goya’s son Javier, is pregnant. Goya regularly visits the young family in Bordeaux. His daughter-in-law appears grown-up, mature, and natural. Her expression is contemplative, introverted, and serious. The grandfather paints his family member with loving openness and tenderness. He envelops her in soft, gentle light, conveying warmth, tenderness, sensitivity, vulnerability, and quiet dignity. Her gaze is composed and full of hope.
6. F. Mendelssohn (1825): The painting is characterized by numerous features of the graphic phase in F. Goya’s late work: brushstrokes, modeling, tonal color, sharp contrasts (chiaroscuro), silhouettes, lighting, accentuations, rapid execution, cropping and axes of movement, and psychologically insightful characterization. The portrait features smooth surfaces (e.g., F. Goya, Portrait of R. de Pignatelli) and muted colors typical of the early Romantic period. Goya recognizes a distinct type of person (e.g.complexion) who does not originate from Spain, but rather from northern Central Europe (born in Hamburg, living in Berlin). Compare Count Kaunitz from Austria (see above).
Special characteristics of the graphic phase appear to be: a soft background with large, “empty” areas; the face as the illuminated center; an extremely muted palette; atmosphere and tonal gradations more important than local color. Lithograph-like edges, brightly “applied” highlights, and a slightly contrasting, dark edge at the eyebrows, ear, and cheek. Fine, but also broad and loose brushstrokes. The brooch, the collar, and the graphic markings in the hair suggest the hand of the artist as a graphic painter. The lighting illuminates the face of a luminous figure.
The background is softly and atmospherically rendered. (See also Goya, Portrait of Count Kaunitz) The surfaces are a subtle mixture, partly polished smooth, partly sketchy (but not academically smooth). The surfaces are a subtle mixture, partly polished smooth, partly sketchy. Loose, experimental brushstrokes, free patches of light, impressionistic in the treatment of fabric and background. Goya sometimes works with visible, broad strokes, sometimes he applies the paint thinly and atmospherically. The background is barely defined, creating mood rather than space.
Dynamic movement of leaning forward at the moment of action. Diagonal lines and quick strokes create speed and tension. A sketchy, free linework makes the lines appear loose and almost improvised. Strong light-dark contrasts intensify dramatic effects and draw the eye to the main action, the engagement with the viewer. Goya focuses the portrait on the essentials. While the background is simplified or merely suggested, he directs attention to the movement in the foreground, the connection with the audience.
The dialogue with the viewer conveys personal intimacy. With soft brushstrokes and gentle light, facial features are lyrically modeled; a warm empathy for youthful sensibility is expressed. The soft light of Romanticism—without sharp divisions—suggests the delicate melting of youth. Mendelssohn’s eyes, in large sockets belonging to the melancholic type (see also infrared image), fix us; in anxious anticipation, he seeks his audience.
7. Jacques Galos (Jaime Galos) (1826), banker and patron of the arts, who managed Goya’s personal finances. This is considered one of Goya’s last portraits, painted at the age of 80.
The light comes obliquely from the upper left; only the face and chest are illuminated, the right side of the face slightly more so, thus emphasizing the three-dimensionality of the nose, forehead, and cheek. The face—in warm rose and ochre tones—is the most nuanced area in terms of color, with particular attention paid to the flesh tones. The brushwork appears loose, somewhat blurred. Contours are soft, especially in the coat and the background. Broad, impasto brushstrokes are visible, which do not meticulously model everything but rather suggest it. Galos appears somewhat tired, introspective, with a quiet, contemplative gaze.
8. Juan Bautista de Muguiro (1827): The portrait shows the banker seated beside his desk, a letter in his hand, one hand on his knee, a composed, focused posture, a calm, expressive visual language.
Dark background, clear contours, a limited color palette, accentuated highlights on the face/linen, harsh lighting for the coolly calculating businessman. The light is directed horizontally, illuminating the forehead, eyes, and nose with particular clarity. The lower half of the face and the torso, however, are shrouded in dark, warm shadow. The lighting is sharp; the face appears determined, focused, and detached, conveying energy and self-control.
9. Ramón de Pignatelli (1828): Important Spanish politician, Enlightenment thinker, and meritorious promoter of public affairs. The face is meticulously rendered. Particularly noteworthy for the early Romantic period are the smooth (!) painted surfaces.
F. Goya, Ramon de Pignatelli (1734–1793) Bordeaux 1828, smooth surface
Dominant brown, black, and ochre tones; the eyes and cheeks are accentuated with warm red hues. Soft light illuminates the face from the left, creating gentle transitions in skin tone and depth without harsh contrasts, appearing to emanate from within. The clearly defined eyes cast the regal gaze of a high-ranking official.
10. Preliminary Drawing (Infrared Reflectography, IRR)
An analysis of Goya’s preliminary drawing using infrared reflectography (IRR) reveals his typical style: The lines were sketched tentatively. This tactile approach, like modeling a sculpture, left a captivating presence in the figure. Please enlarge photo !
F. Goya, Portrait F. Mendelssohn, drawing lines, infrared reflectography (IRR), enlarge photo !
During the Bordeaux period, it is to be expected that the underdrawing of a painting is either fragmentary or appears as a “painterly line” (brush-drawn), that is, tentative lines rather than a complete, academic drawing. The IRR makes visible the “thinking corrections” that are typical of Goya’s working method. However, a dissecting, academically precise underdrawing is absent. There is no continuous, clean linear contour (as with Ingres), often fragmentary, sometimes visible only as corrective lines, and also direct application with a brush with varying stroke widths. The freedom of technique is a distinguishing feature of this painting. Goya applied diluted paint with a brush in a technique similar to gouache achieving thin and transparent layers of color. In other areas, he used quick, expressive brushstrokes with a large amount of paint.
The “pentimenti” in the eye, mouth, and nose areas influence the central psychological axis of the eye, nose, and mouth. The exploratory painting process affects not merely the peripheral areas, but the psychological core zone of the face. The underdrawing with double contours is formed by brushstrokes. These are an expression of plastic reshaping, painterly development, and a searching or tentative approach to linework rather than a fixed academic drawing. The contours of the eye, nose, mouth, or shoulder line are altered by corrective lines. Goya “thinks” during the painting process. The corrections reveal a process-oriented approach to working within the medium. A rigid transfer of the design based on a cartoon can be ruled out.
Linework: The clarity of the outlines corresponds to linear precision thanks to a lithographically influenced conception of form around 1825. However, the contours are not mechanically finished, but remain dynamic in their modeling, as in sculpture. These lines did not originate as finished academic contours, but as part of a painterly process. The contours are “vividly breathing” (painterly, with refractions). The preliminary sketch/underdrawing is often a broad, dark line – drawn with a brush. The line itself has a painterly character. The underdrawing is conceived painterly, not fixed as a drawing.
The psychological characterization is conveyed not through pathos, but through painterly tension. Goya “modernizes” the melancholic type. While in the 18th century melancholy was depicted rather statically through lowered eyelids, a calm, introspective expression, soft modeling, and harmonious lines, Goya shifts the “melancholic type” to an expression of dynamism, life-affirming, inwardly tense, intellectual, and nervous. The depicted figure is characterized as an intellectually tense, inwardly agitated personality. The painterly restlessness functions as a means of psychological intensification. The change in psychological typology is clearly recognizable in the restlessness of the forehead, tuft of hair, eye area, bridge of the nose, and the white shirtfront.
The fragment (cravat, brooche) of the painting shows sketchy, impressionistic brushstrokes, characteristic of Goya’s style. Morphological comparison of the shirt front in the portraits of Moratín and Mendelssohn:
Application of white paint: The shirt front is constructed using long, narrow, nearly parallel vertical strokes. The width of the individual brushstrokes is consistent. The light area was built up—not via glazing—using a relatively dry bristle brush.
Transition from the white shirt edge to the black coat: In both cases, the boundary is not sharply defined; rather, it is created by a single broad brushstroke placed directly against the light area, resulting in a slight irregularity in the contour. This line wavers slightly and is by no means perfectly uniform.
Surface relief: In the Moratín portrait, fine bristle grooves, a minimal amount of paint, and an absence of impasto are clearly visible. As with the Mendelssohn portrait, the relief of the bristle strokes appears similarly elongated and evenly executed.
Execution of the flower: In both paintings, the handling appears spontaneous—featuring few brushstrokes, isolated white highlights, and an impressionistic, dancing brushwork.
Brushwork characteristics: Both paintings exhibit the same general style: dry application, minimal reworking, and an absence of soft, blended transitions.
Micromorphological comparison of details from the Moratín and Mendelssohn portraits reveals consistent features: visible, parallel bristle strokes; vertical white lines; thin paint application; and spontaneous contours without subsequent surface smoothing. These characteristics are typical of Goya’s painting style during his Bordeaux period.
Another example of Goya’s „impressionistic style“: A fragment of the painting „portrait Josefa Bayeu (1814-1816)“ shows brushstrokes resembling sketches, characteristic of Goya’s style. In contrast to the subtly painted face, the woman’s attire lacks detailed attention. The golden embellishments on the black sleeves of her silk dress were created with quick and light brushstrokes, giving the impression of a sketch, almost impressionistic. Similarly, energetic strokes form the light, transparent shawl that covers the dress.
Restlessness on the forehead arises from short, broken brushstrokes without smooth modeling, subtle breaks in tone. This creates psychological tension. In Goya’s work, the forehead often becomes a “space for thought.” When the tufts of hair appear not ornamental, but mobile, restless, slightly sketchy, this is a very modern sign. Restlessness at the eyes and bridge of the nose: significant shifts in the eyes and eyebrows, reworkings that suggest an inquisitive hand. Here, the artist actively worked on the gaze, readjusting the physiognomic tension. Double contours in the nose line, created with both pen and brush, have discarded the original line; the contour has been plastically reshaped. The painting work took place directly in the medium, not according to the specifications of a cartoon. Double contours do not appear as sharply defined preliminary drawings, but rather as painterly corrections in Goya’s working method. The shirtfront: shows restless strokes, tonal breaks, and visible changes in direction. White becomes a carrier of meaning for Goya, who understands the surface as a vibrant energy zone.
While Goya’s brushstrokes in the background of Mendelssohn’s portrait, as with Count Kaunitz and R. d. Pignatelli, are executed with a rather homogeneous style, the shirtfront, brooch, and cravat are painted with broad, almost dancing brushstrokes, in keeping with the artist’s taste. The cravat, although its black texture is not easily discernible, appears, typically for Goya, not smooth (although this is also a frequent occurrence, see above), but rather impressionistically rippled in Mendelssohn’s work (compare the portraits of Galos or Cuervo, in a white cravat).
As a result, the IRR reveals restless, searching lines. The visible painterly restlessness is not accidental, but rather the consequence of a process-oriented struggle for expression, which the artist develops directly during the painting process. The depicted figure corresponds to a modern “genius type,” not a smooth, representational figure. The restlessness visible in the painting is not “melancholy as a pose,” but rather modern character psychology thanks to painterly tension. It expresses inner nervousness, mental alertness, sensitive intelligence, and engagement with the world, as corresponds to Goya’s later view of humanity. The restlessness is a painterly tension precisely placed by Goya; nevertheless it is controlled within the frame.
The colors used are also found in other Goya paintings from the same period. The composition of the ground, the paint layers, and the painting technique (IRR) are identical to his works in Bordeaux from 1824 to 1828. The changes he made during the painting process are also an important indicator. Such changes are typical of an artist who actively researches and refines his work. The signature was applied while the paint was still wet. This suggests that the signature and date are original, dating from Mendelssohn’s visit to Bordeaux in 1825.
11. Late Works by F. Goya
Goya’s intensive collaboration with the Vernet family around 1825 sharpened his “graphic” painting style through lithography. The graphic phase of his work is characterized by reduced color, decisive silhouettes, rapid strokes, and bold compositions; the entire image is graphically composed. Simplified forms and clear chiaroscuro structures utilize light as the dominant means of expression. Sharp contours or high-contrast color fields follow the linear rhythm of a drawing. The few colors are applied quickly, creating concise silhouettes with crisp contours, complemented by flat tonal values with subtly placed highlights. Sober observation combined with imaginative interpretation and empathetic understanding.
His approach to his models varied, clearly evident in a comparison of the portrait of Mendelssohn with the portrait of his grandson, Mariano Goya. Both are dedicated to depicting youth and its vitality. Goya’s portrait of the young Mendelssohn also appears more vibrant than those of others. The pulsating blood reddens his cheeks; the bridge of his nose appears more robust than in the works of H. Vernet, Th. Hildebrandt, and H. Mücke (see above). “A comparison of the portraits … illustrates Goya’s ability to adapt a style appropriate to the sitter before him.” (J.A. Tomlinson, 2022, p. 273) Goya adapted his painting style to the personality of his subject.
This found a typical expression in Bordeaux: “J. Gudiol describes this painting (i.e., Portrait of J. P. d. Molina) as unfinished but nevertheless of solidly constructed form thanks to rigorous sketching.” (José Gudiol, Goya, 1904, here 1970) Aureliano de Beruete sums it up perfectly: “…Goya was simplifying his technique and palette, his knowledge increasing as did his age” (quoted in Jacques Fauque, Ramon Villanueva Etcheverria, Francisco José des Goya y Lucientes, Goya y burdeos, 1824–1828, Zaragoza 1982, p. 671). A decline in his creative powers inevitably led to a concentration of his painting style on the essentials.
Naturally, Goya had to depict an artist differently than the muscular young man Mariano Goya (see below), whom he had portrayed several times since early childhood. In contrast, Goya saw in Felix Mendelssohn a promising young man whom he felt compelled to portray as a refined intellectual: in the preliminary sketch of the hairstyle, he succeeds in depicting the man’s inner turmoil. – Similarly, in an earlier portrait (1816/17) of Count Kaunitz, the misty curls of the hair characterized an enigmatic diplomat.
Fig. 13 F. Goya, Prince Alois Wenzel von Kaunitz-Rietberg, 1815 – 1817 Austria. Envoy in Madrid, diplomatic atmosphere, more of a Central European type.
The works created in Bordeaux also exhibit similar characteristics in their composition: The proportions of the figures, and especially their orientation towards the viewer, represent a clear break with his earlier portraits: The figures look directly into the viewer’s face at eye level.
When Goya portrayed the young Mendelssohn, he was deaf, almost blind, his hand barely mobile, and generally ill and frail. In a letter to Ferrer, December 20, 1825, however, Goya reaffirms his desire to continue working despite his declining health: “…neither eyesight nor handwriting nor pen nor inkwell remain – I lack everything, and only the will remains.” (Prado Museum) When his eyesight deteriorated, he used to work with a magnifying glass. His brush had to be tied to his hand. But he still painted quickly and confidently; he produced up to ten paintings a day, oil paintings taking a little longer. He often completed portraits in a single sitting; this rapid pace was now a defining characteristic of his working method. Even the portrait of Mendelssohn was “painted in one go.”
Goya charged a fee of 2,000 to 3,000 reales (silver coins) for a painting, depending on its size and the patron’s status. An average day laborer earned about 4 to 6 reales per day, depending on the region and the type of work. In Madrid in 1825, this sum was comparable to a craftsman’s entire year’s earnings or 1.5 years’ wages for a simple laborer. It was enough to buy a good horse, equip a workshop, or for an individual to live for almost a year.
At the age of eighty, Goya was particularly interested in the expression of youth: The portrait of his grandson Mariano (1827) appears as an admiration of glorious youth by an old man of failing health. This portrait is special in that Mariano was the member of his family he loved most. Goya painted his grandson repeatedly, and finally as a remarkably robust young man of about 21.
Goya conveys an impression of youthfulness through specific stylistic devices: soft contours, curly hair, slender proportions, and an open, calm gaze.
Face – smooth cheeks without harsh transitions, barely defined nasolabial folds
soft modeling – only slight shadows under the eyes, barely visible wrinkles, very subtle transitions between light and shadow
The skin appears somewhat translucent. Minimal impasto application. Goya almost entirely eschews the dry, angular modeling he otherwise uses to make age and life experience visible.
Large, bright eyes without heavy lids give young people an alert, wide-awake appearance: relatively high eyebrows, proportionately large irises, bright whites of the eyes (sclerae), moist highlights, open, direct gaze, minimal emphasis on eyelid creases.
Curly, voluminous hair: soft, loose, not rigidly styled. In contrast, when painting older men, Goya renders the hair flatter, drier, more severe, grayer.
The mouth: Full, fleshy lips, soft corners of the mouth, barely defined lines (nasolabial folds), facial musculature not yet fully developed
Unusually high collar: neck appears longer, head smaller, body more slender.
Slender body silhouette: narrow shoulders, narrow waist, long legs, minimal muscle mass.
Dark clothing – bright face, soft frontal lighting, subtle light-dark contrasts on the face, stronger emphasis on the eye area. Differentiated treatment of face and clothing
Flesh tones: smooth, finely graduated: Ochre, Ivory, Light, slightly rosy mid-tones, Subtle, soft red.
Loose brushwork
The face is finely detailed only where anatomy requires it. Hair and clothing, by contrast, are rendered with freer brushstrokes, creating an impression of youthful freshness.
Posture: Slightly inclined head, Relaxed shoulders, Natural seated pose.
Youth signifies less a matter of beauty than of Openness, Pensiveness, Immediacy, Minimal social posturing.
These stylistic devices correspond to a recurring type of youthful portrait found throughout Goya’s work. They constitute not merely isolated motifs but a recognizable visual language through which Goya portrays youth as a blend of physical freshness, elegance, and inner openness.
However, the depiction of young people shifts in Goya’s late work: the color palette becomes grayer and more silvery, and psychological characterization deepens. In the portrait of a youth like Felix Mendelssohn (aged 16), a delicate balance emerges between youthful expression and intellectual maturity. Goya retained features such as a high forehead, smooth skin, and clear eyes, while simultaneously highlighting the subject’s exceptional intellectual gifts through a focused gaze and a restrained facial expression.
Mariano Goya looks down at us with a challenging gaze. (Fig. 15) His thick hair frames his head like a halo. With large eyes and rosy, healthy cheeks, he looks vital and energetic, yet leaning back, he is mindful of his distance. This distance is emphasized by a downward squint in his left eye. The young man scrutinizes The viewer is not turned towards him, but he does not face him. His gesture appears more like a pause mid-jump in a competition. The paint is applied thinly and translucently, occasionally impulsively. Goya sketches the face with broad strokes into the sandy-yellow ground.
Fig. 15 F. Goya, Mariano Goya, painted in Madrid in 1827
In the portrait of F. Mendelssohn, too, Goya focuses on depicting youth, concentrating, as before, on the face. As with Mariano, he expresses youthful vitality. (see above) He renders the flesh tones (see above) similarly to the portrait of J. Galos (1826), although not as softly as in the portrait of his pregnant daughter-in-law Gumersinda (1825). He paints the clothing only summarily: with a thickly applied brush, he will, with a single, broad stroke, cover the entire white fabric of the shirtfront.
He crowns this shirt-covering with a jeweled flower in white gold. He reserves the anarchic movement of pointillist brushstrokes entirely for the brooch. In Paris, L. Cherubini had noticed that “…he (Felix Mendelssohn) pays too much attention to his clothing.” Given the actual size of the miniature, Goya grants the dancing of his brush more space than one might have expected.
The painting of the shirtfront and cravat with generous brushstrokes lends the picture a certain pathos. With a few bravura strokes, Goya continues with the remaining parts of the clothing, applying highlights sparingly. He depicts the bow of the cravat with only a thin line. With psychological insight, he models the hair as if it were an echo of the waves of a melody in his mind.
The young musician leans forward, far into our space, seeking contact with us. The light focuses on his face with its radiant eyes. Mendelssohn needs this space, which the painter gives him, because he wants to communicate something to us: The theme of the String Octet in E-flat major, Op. 20, is pressing at precisely this moment. (1825) from the depths of the unconscious into the light of consciousness.
12. F. Goya: Portrait of F. Mendelssohn Bartholdy
The biographical data of the portrait of F. Mendelssohn B. (meeting Goya and the Verne’s in Bordeaux in 1825, reunion with the Vernet family in Rome in 1831). The signature in the original 1825 paint layer (expert opinion from TH Cologne Art Sciences), the painting technique (priming, brushstrokes), the painting style (Spanish school, numerous elements of his graphic phase), and finally the psychological characterization (hairstyle, elegance, refinement, youthfulness, empathetic affection, self-presentation, social status), and much more, all point to Goya’s hand.
The painting is an early Romantic portrait with a smooth surface, muted colors, and a restrained background—a style prevalent in Bordeaux in the early 19th century. Other artists working in this style included Pierre Lacour fils (Pierre Lacour II, 1778–1859), Jean Alaux (1785–1864, known as “le Romain”), and Édouard Dubois (1789–1862). However, no contact with them is known. F. Goya maintained a consequential exchange with the extensive Vernet family of artists (see below).
The Spanish exiles in Bordeaux, on the other hand, formed a small, clearly defined group with whom F. Goya frequently associated. During his stay from 1824 onward, he was in close contact with Leandro Fernández de Moratín (writer, his closest friend in exile), Juan Bautista Maguiro (banker, supporter), José Pío de Molina, and Antonio Brugada. However, there is no evidence of contact with the Spanish painters Francisco Lacoma y Fontanet (1778–1839) and José Aparicio e Inglada (1773–1838), who were also working there.
The Romantic era demanded that painting meaningfully understand human life; accordingly, the painter was expected to depict the inner world of the soul. Like the early Romantics, Goya rejected the pure rationality of the Enlightenment: “The sleep of reason breeds monsters.” His interest was captivated by illness, youth and old age, and the inner life of the psyche (emotional movement, fantasy, dreams/nightmares, the unconscious, the surreal, the irrational). The break with classical forms is already evident in the dramatized composition, the free brushwork, and the sparse palette.
In Mendelssohn, Goya painted a young man who, like no other, represented Romantic music. The melancholic type promised creativity. Accordingly, Goya’s empathy for the inner life of the young Mendelssohn inspired his painting style: The light shines softly on the youthful features, shadows fall gently across the face, and the background fades into a pale light. The paint is applied smoothly and finely, with only a few brushstrokes visible. The soft light, the delicate modeling of the head, the waves in the hair, the The artist’s turning towards the viewer suggests the depiction of a person about to dedicate himself to his audience in the concert hall.
The colors used also appear in other Goya paintings from the same period. The composition of the ground, the paint layers, and the painting technique (IRR) are consistent with his works in Bordeaux from 1824 to 1828. The changes he made during the creation process are also an important indicator. Such changes are typical of an artist who actively researches and refines his work. The signature was applied while the paint was still wet. This suggests that the signature and date are original, dating from Mendelssohn’s visit to Bordeaux in 1825.
No feature could be found that would contradict the attribution of the painting to F. Goya in 1825.
The typical characteristics of Goya’s late work around 1825 characterize the portrait of Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy. During this time, he created further portraits. However, they are lost because he kept neither a diary nor a list of names. “Goya didn’t write a diary or a list of works or the list of names of portrayed persons. Some portraits are delivered by tradition, some reached auctions (see above), but many others are still unknown.” (Xavier Bray/Juliet Wilson-Bareau, 2015, pp. 193 ff.)
The art-historical assessment of the painting: old canvas, the original stretcher frame, the lining, the sand-yellow ground, the Bordeaux provenance, the infrared findings, the Romantic-Spanish tonality, and a possible “Goya” signature suggests that a serious examination within the context of the late works of F. Goya is advisable.
1. Stylistic Question: The “Bordeaux Phase”?
The painting exhibits several characteristics reminiscent of the atmosphere of the late Bordeaux period: a dark, tonal overall mood, a psychologically introverted expression, soft, almost smoky transitions, a reduced color palette, melancholic lighting, a loose handling of the black passages, a relatively modern simplification of the background. These qualities are typically found in the late works of Goya.
2. Dating
This issue arises from Mendelssohn’s biography, specifically within the context of his Jewish, patriarchal family environment.
3. The Sand-Yellow Ground: Goya frequently employed warm—ochre, yellowish, or reddish-brown—grounds, particularly in his late works. A sand-yellow ground would by no means be atypical; rather, it is technically plausible. However, the decisive factors are the microscopic layer structure and the absence of modern titanium white components.
4. Infrared reflectography reveals a lively underlying structure, a free painterly conception, and numerous exploratory strokes.
Particularly noteworthy are the relatively free modeling of the face, the partially diffuse rendering of contours, and the deep black passages. The overall impression is one of original, painterly spontaneity rather than academic convention.
5. The “Goya” signature appears to be an integral part of the original composition; it lies beneath the varnish, has aged in tandem with the craquelure pattern, and is consistent with the pigments used during that period.
6. The Bordeaux Provenance: Bordeaux was precisely the location of Goya’s exile; it was there that he created his very latest works, where he devoted himself specifically to the psychological characterization of his sitters, and where his lithographic phase began. 7. Conclusion: Based on current findings, the painting style corresponds to an autograph work by Goya, attested to by an authentic Goya signature. The portrait of F. Mendelssohn (oil on canvas) was created in the early 19th century. Based on technical and stylistic characteristics, it is highly probable that the work was executed during Francisco de Goya’s exile in Bordeaux. Traces of a signature reveal the name “Goya.” Further technical analysis of the materials remains pending.
