The Encyclopedia of Material Culture in the Biblical W orld (EBW) builds on the German »Standardw... more The Encyclopedia of Material Culture in the Biblical W orld (EBW) builds on the German »Standardwerk« Biblisches Reallexikon (BRL), edited by Kurt Galling 1937, second edition 1977 (2BRL). It is a reference book for biblical scholars, historians, and archaeologists. The EBW focusses on the material culture from the Neolithic Age to the Hellenistic period, giving attention to the material from the Bronze and Iron Ages, including the Persian period. The geographic regions covered by the entries include primarily the records of Palestine (= the Southern Levant) limited by (excl.) the southern fringe of Lebanon and Hermon (North), the Wadi al-Ariš, the Sinai peninsula and North-Arabia (South), the Mediterranean Sea (West) and the Transjordanian desert (East). If appropriate to the entry, the neighboring evidence from Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, and Mesopotamia is included. The Encyclopedia presents and documents the material culture based on the archaeological, epigraphical, and iconographical data in historical order and documents the state of current research. The entries do not only list or mention the most important material data, but try to synthesize and interpret it within the horizon of a history of Southern Levantine culture, economy, technical development, art, and religion.
The EBW consists of around 120 articles and an introductory part pertaining to the chronology of the EBW, archaeology and cultural History, epigraphy, and iconography, written by specialists from 15 different countries.
Map 20, covering the immediate hinterland of the ancient city of Akko, closes the last gap in the... more Map 20, covering the immediate hinterland of the ancient city of Akko, closes the last gap in the archaeological survey of the Akko plain. The surveys of all other units of this major Mediterranean plain have been published or are in the process of publication. Map 20 provides a complete inventory of surveys in this coastal plain, which is about 40 km long and 15 km wide.
This paper, jointly written by participants of a workshop held in 2021, argues for an increased r... more This paper, jointly written by participants of a workshop held in 2021, argues for an increased recognition and application of neutron activation analysis (NAA) in the archaeology of the ancient Mediterranean. Discussing the methodological strengths and challenges, it highlights the great potential NAA has for collecting proxy data from ceramics in order to develop progressive concepts of archaeological research within and beyond the Mediterranean Bronze and Iron Age, pointing out opportunities to revisit long-held assumptions of scholarship and to refine visual/macroscopic provenance determinations of pottery. To take full advantage of NAA’s strengths toward a better understanding of the socioeconomic background of ceramics production, distribution, and consumption, the paper emphasises the need for both interdisciplinary collaboration and basic data publication requirements.
This article presents a preliminary comparative stratigraphy of excavated sites in Plain Cilicia ... more This article presents a preliminary comparative stratigraphy of excavated sites in Plain Cilicia and one in Rough Cilicia. It is the outcome of three workshops held in 2014, 2015 and 2017. Plain Cilicia at the junction of Anatolia, Syro-Mesopotamia and Cyprus is one of the most fertile regions of the Ancient Near East. In recent years, archaeological research in the region has intensified, re-opening questions of chronology. The comparative stratigraphy discussed in the workshops is presented here in form of a gazetteer of the participating sites and a chart. This is to be understood as a first step towards a more comprehensive chronology.
The transition from the Iron Age I to the Iron Age IIA during the 10th century BCE was a period o... more The transition from the Iron Age I to the Iron Age IIA during the 10th century BCE was a period of profound political and socio-economic transformations in the Levant. One of these developments was the emergence of early Phoenicia. In its course, Phoenicia emanated as an interface of international exchange connecting Mediterranean and continental economies of the Levant. This had a profound impact on the societies of the Southern Levant in general and ancient Israel in particular. Phoenician influence was not just marginal for the history of ancient Israel but developed into an integral component of Israelite economic and political history.
The Phoenicians are the population of ancient Lebanon during the 1st millennium bce. However, Pho... more The Phoenicians are the population of ancient Lebanon during the 1st millennium bce. However, Phoenician settlement was also located on the coast of modern Syria and Israel. The Phoenicians were not immigrants and developed out of the local Bronze Age populations of the 2nd millennium bce. Some scholars do not distinguish the Late Bronze Age (1550–1150 bce) city-states of Lebanon from those of the Phoenicians in the Iron Age of the 1st millennium bce. Rather than defining “Phoenicia” with ethnic features, the approach chosen here emphasizes aspects of the political economy. With the sociopolitical changes at the end of the Late Bronze Age, new communities emerged with a specific pattern of social and political organization and economic activities that increasingly included “private” entrepreneurial initiatives. With these developments, a new form of Levantine city-state emerged from previous Bronze Age formations. Another specific feature of the Phoenician phenomenon is the developm...
During the Persian (or Achaemenid) period, simply band-painted bowls, plates, jugs, table amphora... more During the Persian (or Achaemenid) period, simply band-painted bowls, plates, jugs, table amphorae and hydriae are documented in the Levantin particular in the coastal regionsas one of the most common groups of decorated ceramics. Vessels of this stylemostly drinking vesselswere recorded in significant quantities at most coastal sites in southern Turkey, Syria, Israel, Cyprus, and occasionally also in Egypt. The band-painted decoration resembles East Greek styles and initial studies identified these vessels as variations of East Greek ceramics imported to the eastern Mediterranean from Ionian cities. In this study, we examined a large sample of this pottery from the northern and southern Levant, both stylistically and by fabric analysis, applying Neutron Activation Analyses (NAA), Wavelength Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (WD-XRF) and petrography. We demonstrate that almost all the vessels of this particular, and popular, style were produced at one site only-Kelenderis, in Ciliciawhich during the Persian period distributed its merchandise extensively to large parts of the eastern Mediterranean. The newly identified Mediterranean NAA group was labelled 'Kelenderis A' (KelA). The results require a reconsideration of commercial and other Mediterranean interconnections during this period.
Technological analyses of the lithic assemblage recovered from the excavations at Qubur el-Walayd... more Technological analyses of the lithic assemblage recovered from the excavations at Qubur el-Walaydah offer new insights into the nature of the specialized production system of sickle blades during the Late Bronze-Iron Age, and provide new data sets concerning the decline of chipped-stone technologies. Although the knapping technology used for the production of flint sickle segments was relatively simple, the spatial distribution of this system, the hafting procedures, and other technological considerations suggest that the specialists were no longer solely flint knappers, but had become sickle artisans. They produced the complete sickles that the farmers, who in turn lost their role in the manufacturing process, used. This specialized system can be characterized as a kind of vertical production integration. The organization of the production of flint sickles, moreover, may offer insights on the last stage of the stone-metal replacement process. If the intrinsic properties of iron and its availability must have played an important role, the flint-iron substitution might be facilitated by the fact that the production system was already characterized by a form of specialization where the users of these objects were no longer the producers. In this regard, the simultaneous fall of ad hoc flint tools represent another facet of the same phenomenon. If within the lithic production system the manufacture of sickles and ad hoc tools represent two distinct subsystems , the large-scale adoption of iron implements suggests the emergence of a single specialized system producing different types of cutting tools, then used for different tasks. Thus, the end of chipped stone tools is related not only to the efficiency of iron implements, but also to a structural change in the relationship between tool consumers and producers.
This study defines early Iron Age burials in Northern Israel as a coherent assemblage with tradit... more This study defines early Iron Age burials in Northern Israel as a coherent assemblage with traditions that are archaeologically distinguishable from those of northern Phoenician and southern Philistine societies. These burial traditions are distinct from funerary customs of the Late Bronze Age and Iron IIB. The study discusses the main developments and regional differentiations of early Iron Age burial traditions with an emphasis on their chronological contexts.
Among the painted pottery types in the Levant during the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E., the "... more Among the painted pottery types in the Levant during the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E., the "East Greek" class is especially conspicuous and usually assumed to have been produced in Ionia. This pottery is the subject of a comprehensive research project, examining it from typological, analytical, and other perspectives. Our conclusion is that the "East Greek" class comprises in fact several subgroups from various other parts of the Mediterranean. Here we discuss one of these groups, including mainly hydriai, table amphoras, and jugs, which we suggest were produced on Crete, specifically in the central part of the island. These are the first Cretan ceramics of this period attested anywhere off the island, and they provide the first hint that maritime routes then linked Crete with various eastern Mediterranean regions. This pottery can perhaps be understood as a proxy for the exchange of a wider array of commodities, a possibility addressed in the concluding section of this article. Since the conventional wisdom is that Crete was largely disconnected from the rest of the Mediterranean in the Classical period, both commercially and culturally, this discovery has important implications for Cretan history and more generally for tracing ancient Mediterranean interconnections. It also adds to our understanding of the ceramic repertoire of fifth-and fourth-century B.C.E. Crete, which is still rather poorly known. 1 introduction This article is the first fruit of an extensive research program, the aim of which was to reexamine the origin of the so-called East Greek decorated 1 The project was funded mainly by Israel Science Foundation (ISF) grant 570/09, which was awarded to Gilboa and Lehmann, and by ISF grants 209/14 and 237/14. Gilboa thanks the Goldhirsh-Yellin Foundation (Encino, Calif.) for their long-lasting support of Dor-related research. Parts of this study represent the results of Shalev's unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, "'The Mighty Grain-Lands'-Demographic and Economic Aspects of 'Southern Phoenicia' Under the Achaemenid Regime" (University of Haifa), which was supported by the University of Haifa and by a Nathan Rotenstreich scholarship. We are grateful to Elisa Chiara Portale and Maria Antonietta Rizzo, who studied the Gortyn pottery and made the analyses possible. We thank the staff of the research reactor of the Reactor Institute Delft, Delft University of Technology, for their technical support; Gerwulf Schneider and Małgorzata Daszkiewicz for the X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis; and Paula Waiman-Barak for assisting with studying the fabrics and producing the thin-sections and the photomicrographs. Paula Perlman first opened our eyes to the significance of our finds, and Ilan Sharon, codirector of the Tel Dor Excavation Project, and Susan Rebecca Martin provided continuous collaboration and support. We thank our reviewers-Mark Lawall, Antonis Kotsonas, and a third, anonymous reviewer for the AJA-for their truly insightful comments and relevant references. ayelet gilboa et al. 560 [aja 121 ish Museum (Alexandra Villing); University College London (Rachael Sparks); and the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (Jack Green). Marie-Henriette Gates generously allowed us access to material from her excavations at Kinet Höyük. The relevant chrono-typological sequence at Kinet Höyük is currently being assessed. Provisional dates are as follows: period 6, the late seventh and early sixth century B.C.E.; period 5, sixth century B.C.E.; period 4, the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E. (M.-H. Gates and G. Lehmann, pers. comm. 2016). 9 We deeply thank the Israel Antiquities Authority, especially Michael Saban and Deborah Ben-Ami, for allowing us to study and sample vessels stored in their collections. Further permissions to study, sample, and publish comparative material were granted to us by Ezra Marcus (Tel ʿAkko, Area F, in the framework of a project funded by the Shelby White and Leon Levy Program for Archaeological Publications); Avshalom Zemer and the National Maritime Museum at Haifa (Shiqmona); Samuel Wolff (Tel Megadim); Orit Tzuf (Jaffa); and Dan Master and Josh Wolton (Ashkelon). We thank them all. 10 Lehmann 2000.
... Karmon, Israel, 32-35, der auf die Eignungvon L?ss unter semiariden Bedingungen f?r Weizen un... more ... Karmon, Israel, 32-35, der auf die Eignungvon L?ss unter semiariden Bedingungen f?r Weizen und Gerste hinweist. 13 Karmon, Israel, 10 Fig. 3. 14 Na'aman, Brook of Egypt, 238-264; Na'aman, Shihor of Eypt, 265-278. 15 Keel/K?chler, Orte und Landschaften, 102. Page 4. ...
The Encyclopedia of Material Culture in the Biblical W orld (EBW) builds on the German »Standardw... more The Encyclopedia of Material Culture in the Biblical W orld (EBW) builds on the German »Standardwerk« Biblisches Reallexikon (BRL), edited by Kurt Galling 1937, second edition 1977 (2BRL). It is a reference book for biblical scholars, historians, and archaeologists. The EBW focusses on the material culture from the Neolithic Age to the Hellenistic period, giving attention to the material from the Bronze and Iron Ages, including the Persian period. The geographic regions covered by the entries include primarily the records of Palestine (= the Southern Levant) limited by (excl.) the southern fringe of Lebanon and Hermon (North), the Wadi al-Ariš, the Sinai peninsula and North-Arabia (South), the Mediterranean Sea (West) and the Transjordanian desert (East). If appropriate to the entry, the neighboring evidence from Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, and Mesopotamia is included. The Encyclopedia presents and documents the material culture based on the archaeological, epigraphical, and iconographical data in historical order and documents the state of current research. The entries do not only list or mention the most important material data, but try to synthesize and interpret it within the horizon of a history of Southern Levantine culture, economy, technical development, art, and religion.
The EBW consists of around 120 articles and an introductory part pertaining to the chronology of the EBW, archaeology and cultural History, epigraphy, and iconography, written by specialists from 15 different countries.
Map 20, covering the immediate hinterland of the ancient city of Akko, closes the last gap in the... more Map 20, covering the immediate hinterland of the ancient city of Akko, closes the last gap in the archaeological survey of the Akko plain. The surveys of all other units of this major Mediterranean plain have been published or are in the process of publication. Map 20 provides a complete inventory of surveys in this coastal plain, which is about 40 km long and 15 km wide.
This paper, jointly written by participants of a workshop held in 2021, argues for an increased r... more This paper, jointly written by participants of a workshop held in 2021, argues for an increased recognition and application of neutron activation analysis (NAA) in the archaeology of the ancient Mediterranean. Discussing the methodological strengths and challenges, it highlights the great potential NAA has for collecting proxy data from ceramics in order to develop progressive concepts of archaeological research within and beyond the Mediterranean Bronze and Iron Age, pointing out opportunities to revisit long-held assumptions of scholarship and to refine visual/macroscopic provenance determinations of pottery. To take full advantage of NAA’s strengths toward a better understanding of the socioeconomic background of ceramics production, distribution, and consumption, the paper emphasises the need for both interdisciplinary collaboration and basic data publication requirements.
This article presents a preliminary comparative stratigraphy of excavated sites in Plain Cilicia ... more This article presents a preliminary comparative stratigraphy of excavated sites in Plain Cilicia and one in Rough Cilicia. It is the outcome of three workshops held in 2014, 2015 and 2017. Plain Cilicia at the junction of Anatolia, Syro-Mesopotamia and Cyprus is one of the most fertile regions of the Ancient Near East. In recent years, archaeological research in the region has intensified, re-opening questions of chronology. The comparative stratigraphy discussed in the workshops is presented here in form of a gazetteer of the participating sites and a chart. This is to be understood as a first step towards a more comprehensive chronology.
The transition from the Iron Age I to the Iron Age IIA during the 10th century BCE was a period o... more The transition from the Iron Age I to the Iron Age IIA during the 10th century BCE was a period of profound political and socio-economic transformations in the Levant. One of these developments was the emergence of early Phoenicia. In its course, Phoenicia emanated as an interface of international exchange connecting Mediterranean and continental economies of the Levant. This had a profound impact on the societies of the Southern Levant in general and ancient Israel in particular. Phoenician influence was not just marginal for the history of ancient Israel but developed into an integral component of Israelite economic and political history.
The Phoenicians are the population of ancient Lebanon during the 1st millennium bce. However, Pho... more The Phoenicians are the population of ancient Lebanon during the 1st millennium bce. However, Phoenician settlement was also located on the coast of modern Syria and Israel. The Phoenicians were not immigrants and developed out of the local Bronze Age populations of the 2nd millennium bce. Some scholars do not distinguish the Late Bronze Age (1550–1150 bce) city-states of Lebanon from those of the Phoenicians in the Iron Age of the 1st millennium bce. Rather than defining “Phoenicia” with ethnic features, the approach chosen here emphasizes aspects of the political economy. With the sociopolitical changes at the end of the Late Bronze Age, new communities emerged with a specific pattern of social and political organization and economic activities that increasingly included “private” entrepreneurial initiatives. With these developments, a new form of Levantine city-state emerged from previous Bronze Age formations. Another specific feature of the Phoenician phenomenon is the developm...
During the Persian (or Achaemenid) period, simply band-painted bowls, plates, jugs, table amphora... more During the Persian (or Achaemenid) period, simply band-painted bowls, plates, jugs, table amphorae and hydriae are documented in the Levantin particular in the coastal regionsas one of the most common groups of decorated ceramics. Vessels of this stylemostly drinking vesselswere recorded in significant quantities at most coastal sites in southern Turkey, Syria, Israel, Cyprus, and occasionally also in Egypt. The band-painted decoration resembles East Greek styles and initial studies identified these vessels as variations of East Greek ceramics imported to the eastern Mediterranean from Ionian cities. In this study, we examined a large sample of this pottery from the northern and southern Levant, both stylistically and by fabric analysis, applying Neutron Activation Analyses (NAA), Wavelength Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (WD-XRF) and petrography. We demonstrate that almost all the vessels of this particular, and popular, style were produced at one site only-Kelenderis, in Ciliciawhich during the Persian period distributed its merchandise extensively to large parts of the eastern Mediterranean. The newly identified Mediterranean NAA group was labelled 'Kelenderis A' (KelA). The results require a reconsideration of commercial and other Mediterranean interconnections during this period.
Technological analyses of the lithic assemblage recovered from the excavations at Qubur el-Walayd... more Technological analyses of the lithic assemblage recovered from the excavations at Qubur el-Walaydah offer new insights into the nature of the specialized production system of sickle blades during the Late Bronze-Iron Age, and provide new data sets concerning the decline of chipped-stone technologies. Although the knapping technology used for the production of flint sickle segments was relatively simple, the spatial distribution of this system, the hafting procedures, and other technological considerations suggest that the specialists were no longer solely flint knappers, but had become sickle artisans. They produced the complete sickles that the farmers, who in turn lost their role in the manufacturing process, used. This specialized system can be characterized as a kind of vertical production integration. The organization of the production of flint sickles, moreover, may offer insights on the last stage of the stone-metal replacement process. If the intrinsic properties of iron and its availability must have played an important role, the flint-iron substitution might be facilitated by the fact that the production system was already characterized by a form of specialization where the users of these objects were no longer the producers. In this regard, the simultaneous fall of ad hoc flint tools represent another facet of the same phenomenon. If within the lithic production system the manufacture of sickles and ad hoc tools represent two distinct subsystems , the large-scale adoption of iron implements suggests the emergence of a single specialized system producing different types of cutting tools, then used for different tasks. Thus, the end of chipped stone tools is related not only to the efficiency of iron implements, but also to a structural change in the relationship between tool consumers and producers.
This study defines early Iron Age burials in Northern Israel as a coherent assemblage with tradit... more This study defines early Iron Age burials in Northern Israel as a coherent assemblage with traditions that are archaeologically distinguishable from those of northern Phoenician and southern Philistine societies. These burial traditions are distinct from funerary customs of the Late Bronze Age and Iron IIB. The study discusses the main developments and regional differentiations of early Iron Age burial traditions with an emphasis on their chronological contexts.
Among the painted pottery types in the Levant during the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E., the "... more Among the painted pottery types in the Levant during the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E., the "East Greek" class is especially conspicuous and usually assumed to have been produced in Ionia. This pottery is the subject of a comprehensive research project, examining it from typological, analytical, and other perspectives. Our conclusion is that the "East Greek" class comprises in fact several subgroups from various other parts of the Mediterranean. Here we discuss one of these groups, including mainly hydriai, table amphoras, and jugs, which we suggest were produced on Crete, specifically in the central part of the island. These are the first Cretan ceramics of this period attested anywhere off the island, and they provide the first hint that maritime routes then linked Crete with various eastern Mediterranean regions. This pottery can perhaps be understood as a proxy for the exchange of a wider array of commodities, a possibility addressed in the concluding section of this article. Since the conventional wisdom is that Crete was largely disconnected from the rest of the Mediterranean in the Classical period, both commercially and culturally, this discovery has important implications for Cretan history and more generally for tracing ancient Mediterranean interconnections. It also adds to our understanding of the ceramic repertoire of fifth-and fourth-century B.C.E. Crete, which is still rather poorly known. 1 introduction This article is the first fruit of an extensive research program, the aim of which was to reexamine the origin of the so-called East Greek decorated 1 The project was funded mainly by Israel Science Foundation (ISF) grant 570/09, which was awarded to Gilboa and Lehmann, and by ISF grants 209/14 and 237/14. Gilboa thanks the Goldhirsh-Yellin Foundation (Encino, Calif.) for their long-lasting support of Dor-related research. Parts of this study represent the results of Shalev's unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, "'The Mighty Grain-Lands'-Demographic and Economic Aspects of 'Southern Phoenicia' Under the Achaemenid Regime" (University of Haifa), which was supported by the University of Haifa and by a Nathan Rotenstreich scholarship. We are grateful to Elisa Chiara Portale and Maria Antonietta Rizzo, who studied the Gortyn pottery and made the analyses possible. We thank the staff of the research reactor of the Reactor Institute Delft, Delft University of Technology, for their technical support; Gerwulf Schneider and Małgorzata Daszkiewicz for the X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis; and Paula Waiman-Barak for assisting with studying the fabrics and producing the thin-sections and the photomicrographs. Paula Perlman first opened our eyes to the significance of our finds, and Ilan Sharon, codirector of the Tel Dor Excavation Project, and Susan Rebecca Martin provided continuous collaboration and support. We thank our reviewers-Mark Lawall, Antonis Kotsonas, and a third, anonymous reviewer for the AJA-for their truly insightful comments and relevant references. ayelet gilboa et al. 560 [aja 121 ish Museum (Alexandra Villing); University College London (Rachael Sparks); and the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (Jack Green). Marie-Henriette Gates generously allowed us access to material from her excavations at Kinet Höyük. The relevant chrono-typological sequence at Kinet Höyük is currently being assessed. Provisional dates are as follows: period 6, the late seventh and early sixth century B.C.E.; period 5, sixth century B.C.E.; period 4, the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E. (M.-H. Gates and G. Lehmann, pers. comm. 2016). 9 We deeply thank the Israel Antiquities Authority, especially Michael Saban and Deborah Ben-Ami, for allowing us to study and sample vessels stored in their collections. Further permissions to study, sample, and publish comparative material were granted to us by Ezra Marcus (Tel ʿAkko, Area F, in the framework of a project funded by the Shelby White and Leon Levy Program for Archaeological Publications); Avshalom Zemer and the National Maritime Museum at Haifa (Shiqmona); Samuel Wolff (Tel Megadim); Orit Tzuf (Jaffa); and Dan Master and Josh Wolton (Ashkelon). We thank them all. 10 Lehmann 2000.
... Karmon, Israel, 32-35, der auf die Eignungvon L?ss unter semiariden Bedingungen f?r Weizen un... more ... Karmon, Israel, 32-35, der auf die Eignungvon L?ss unter semiariden Bedingungen f?r Weizen und Gerste hinweist. 13 Karmon, Israel, 10 Fig. 3. 14 Na'aman, Brook of Egypt, 238-264; Na'aman, Shihor of Eypt, 265-278. 15 Keel/K?chler, Orte und Landschaften, 102. Page 4. ...
The Late Bronze Age to the Iron Age transition involves profound cultural and political changes i... more The Late Bronze Age to the Iron Age transition involves profound cultural and political changes in the southern Levant. The transition is dated to the 12th century BC, based on archaeological artifacts and historical documents. A more precise absolute date for this transition for the southern Levant based on radiocarbon is difficult since the14C calibration curve reduces precision significantly due to wiggles that form an approximately 200-yr-long plateau. This article analyzes14C samples from the Late Bronze Age to the Iron Age transition at Qubur el-Walaydah. To increase the resolution of14C dates within the plateau,14C samples were collected only from well-defined multilayered contexts.14C dates from 11 contexts were obtained and these were analyzed using a Bayesian model that incorporated the stratigraphic information. Using this integrative approach we date the Late Bronze Age III levels at Qubur el-Walydah, containing the initial phase of locally produced Philistine pottery be...
Cooking installations are among the most abundant features in Bronze and Iron Age archaeological ... more Cooking installations are among the most abundant features in Bronze and Iron Age archaeological sites in the southern Levant, yet until now their study has been mostly descriptive. We present a study of 11 purported archaeological cooking installations from three different Bronze and Iron Age sites in Israel in which we deployed a variety of microarchaeological techniques. We provide direct physical evidence, based on Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy demonstrating that the archaeological installations were operated with temperatures as high as 900 C. Using this technique we also demonstrate that all the mud-constructed installations studied by us were internally-fueled and therefore should be identified as Tannurs rather than the externally-fueled Tabuns. We studied in detail the quantities of ashrelated microscopic remains, including opaline phytoliths, calcitic wood ash pseudomorphs and dung spherulites. We show that phytolith morphotype analysis cannot distinguish between wood-dominated and dung-dominated fuel materials, while a newly developed method that calculates the ratio of ash pseudomorphs to dung spherulites (PSR method) makes such a distinction possible. Moreover, we experimented with the effect of partial dissolution on fuel ash PSR values and utilize the results to explain taphonomy and diagenesis associated with two types of archaeological cooking installations e pebble hearths and baking ovens. In addition, we identified micromorphological criteria that can be used to assess whether ash deposits in or above a cooking installations are in situ and/or disturbed. Taken together, all lines of evidence used in this study indicate that wood was the major fuel material across time and space in the studied archaeological contexts, while dung was a secondary source of fuel. This observation also cross-cuts different culture-historical entities (Philistines, Canaanites, Israelites and Egyptians). In addition, wood was preferred as fuel irrespective of environmental differences among the studied sites. This study is yet another demonstration of the value of integrating microarchaeological techniques and approaches to traditional macroscopic archaeology.
... | Ayuda. Decorated Pottery Styles in the Northern Levant during the Early Iron Age and their ... more ... | Ayuda. Decorated Pottery Styles in the Northern Levant during the Early Iron Age and their Relationship with Cyprus and the Aegean. Autores: Gunnar Lehmann; Localización: Ugarit-Forschungen, ISSN 0342-2356, Nº. 39, 2007 , pags. 487-550. ...
Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 2000
Joffe, AH 1999 Slouching toward Beersheva: Chalcolithic Mortuary Practices in Local and Regional ... more Joffe, AH 1999 Slouching toward Beersheva: Chalcolithic Mortuary Practices in Local and Regional Con-text. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Boston. Joffe, AJ, and Dessel, JP 1995 Redefining Chronology and ...
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Books by Gunnar Lehmann
The EBW consists of around 120 articles and an introductory part pertaining to the chronology of the EBW, archaeology and cultural History, epigraphy, and iconography, written by specialists from 15 different countries.
Papers by Gunnar Lehmann
The EBW consists of around 120 articles and an introductory part pertaining to the chronology of the EBW, archaeology and cultural History, epigraphy, and iconography, written by specialists from 15 different countries.