Architecture

New multidisciplinary research based on geomorphological investigation and soil survey conducted at the slopes of Masada fort enabled us to reevaluate and question the dramatic events that took place there, in 73/74 CE, according to the 1st century CE Jewish historian, Flavius Josephus. The fort, built on a high elevated and isolated rocky block facing the Dead Sea in Israel, is now on the UNESCO list of World Heritage sites. Here, according to Josephus, a group of Jewish rebels occupying Masada chose to kill each other and die as free people rather than go into captivity. This act took place after the rebels realized that the Roman army, laying a complex assault ramp against the fort of Masada, were breaching its walls. The archaeological finds unearthed at Masada, revealing the daily life of the Jewish rebels and the well-preserved remains of the Roman siege apparatus, seem at face value to complement Josephus' description. However, our new geomorphological and soil examination of the assault ramp and the natural terrain in its vicinity enable us to clearly separate between the man-made construction and the natural slope environments, and draw a clear boundary between the two. In addition, we conclude that since their formation, they were not subjected to later modification by processes such as natural erosion, slope sliding, or anthropogenic interruptions. As the Roman assault ramp was found to be an uncompleted structure, we conclude that the final scenario of the siege could not have happened as Josephus described it. This meticulous new research confirms our earlier hypothesis that the assault ramp was never completed and therefore could not have been operational. Such a conclusion challenges the common understanding of how the Roman siege of Masada ended.

During the Byzantine period, the Judean Shephelah region of the Holy Land boasted numerous churches and monasteries. Some of these churches were erected at sanctified sites (loca sancta) or developed along the main pilgrimage routes to provide various support services. The church at Ḥorbat Ḥanot is unique as it was erected upon a venerated tomb ideally located along the ancient Jerusalem- Eleutheropolis road. Excavations at the site began nearly 50 years ago and uncovered colorful mosaic floors of a basilical church, built during the Byzantine period. Researchers have associated the site with the tomb of Goliath, which was visited and recorded by ancient pilgrims. Recent archeological fieldwork at the site exposed additional remains of the church yet, a comprehensive report has not been published. This article presents a cohesive and updated description of the architectural layout and present a reconstruction of the church.

In 2019, large-scale excavation was conducted near Tel Motza, located to the west of Jerusalem. These excavations took place in close proximity to Beit-Yalin, a built complex from the 19th century that was constructed atop remnants dating back to the Crusader period. Additionally, the site is also associated with the name Colonia, which can be found in historical records dating as far back as the Middle Ages and even earlier.
The Crusader remains unearthed during past excavations included massive walls, stumps of piers, and an impressive cistern. However, one notable discovery in the 2019 excavation was a pit containing more than twenty finely cut stone ashlars and architectural elements that are  dated to the Crusader period. In this article, an analysis of these items is presented, aiming to trace their origins.
By combining the historical sources with a comprehensive reevaluation of the archaeological evidence from the Crusader period at the site, a cautious suggestion is put forward: the items may have originated from a church or chapel that once stood in that very location. There is a strong likelihood that Motza could be the Emmaus of the Crusaders, which was a significant pilgrimage place during the 12th century.

Khirbat Umm edh-Dhiyab extends over the top and northern slope of a hill at the eastern end of Ramat Bet Shemesh, c. 1.2 km north of Ḥorbat Bet Naṭif, overlooking the western slopes of the Judean Hills and Naḥal Zanoaḥ (Fig. 1). On the Palestine Exploration Fund maps from the end of the nineteenth century, the site is marked as “Umm edh Dhiyab.” In 1902, a burial cave was discovered c. 200 m east of the Arab village of Beit Naṭṭif with two inscriptions mentioning the name of a Roman soldier (Savignac 1903a; 1903b). A systematic survey was carried out at the site in the early 1990s by Y. Dagan (2010:258–263) and again in 2011 by A. Nagorsky as part of a development survey of Ramat Bet Shemesh (unpublished). Archaeological excavations south and southeast of the current excavation area were conducted by I. Zilberbod and T. Lieberman (2016), S. Hirschberg (2016), R. Greenwald (2017),Y. Tzur (2020), J. Tianu (2020), O. Shalev (2021) and E. Klein and Y. Sitton (2021).
These excavations, which focused on the agricultural hinterland of the ancient settlement, uncovered quarries, terrace and field walls, roads, water cisterns, caves, winepress and other agricultural installations.
In 2015, an archaeological excavation was conducted by the authors (Betzer and Radashkovsky, in preparation; Fig. 2), during which remains of settlement were unearthed, along with part of its agricultural hinterland and a cemetery.
The settlement, dated to the first century CE (Area B), yielded a structure, which had undergone many changes following its construction, as well as an alleyway paved with white plaster. The finds included pottery vessels and fragments of soft limestone vessels, attesting to Jewish presence at the site. Around the residential zone, an agricultural area was excavated and documented (Area C), containing winepresses and an olive-oil press. Finally, on a broad artificial terrace c. 50 m southeast of the settlement was a cemetery from the Roman period (Area A) containing, among other things, two mausolea (Structures M1 and M2).1 This article will focus on the finds from the cemetery in Area A in its various phases, in an attempt to reconstruct the two burial structures based on the finds and architectural elements unearthed in their immediate surroundings. We will attempt, through an analysis of the findings and their geographical-historical context, to suggest the ethnic identity of the deceased.