Papers, Essays & Articles by Dimitrios A Kourtis
Evrigenis Yearbook of International and European Law (EvrYIEL), 2023
The Armenian genocide, a tragic chapter in human history, unfolded amidst the turmoil of the Firs... more The Armenian genocide, a tragic chapter in human history, unfolded amidst the turmoil of the First World War within the Ottoman Empire. This research article explores the intersection of this historical event with contemporary doctrines of international criminal law. This article hypothesises that applying modern international criminal law frameworks to the Armenian genocide can strengthen the claims of the victimised community and contribute to the pursuit of historical justice. By examining legal principles of genocide prevention and punishment within the context of historical evidence, this research seeks to provide a juridical perspective on the Armenian genocide, aiming to elucidate its legal implications and reinforce the quest for accountability and recognition.
Περιβάλλον και Δίκαιο (Environment and Law), 3/2023, 333-341, 2023
Περίληψη: Στο πλαίσιο της παρούσας εξετάζεται η δυνατότητα χορήγησης καθεστώτος διεθνούς προστασί... more Περίληψη: Στο πλαίσιο της παρούσας εξετάζεται η δυνατότητα χορήγησης καθεστώτος διεθνούς προστασίας (ασύλου) στα θύματα διεθνών εγκλημάτων με περιβαλλοντικές επιπτώσεις ως μορφή εξωδικαστικά παρεχόμενης επανόρθωσης. Αρχικά, εκτίθενται οι βασικές παράμετροι της επιστημονικής συζήτησης στο πεδίο του διεθνούς ποινικού δικαίου σχετικά με την προστασία του περιβάλλοντος. Κατόπιν, αναλύονται οι σημαντικότερες νομοτυπικές υποστάσεις των εγκλημάτων με περιβαλλοντικό αντίκτυπο που τροφοδοτούν προσφυγικές ροές και τέλος εξετάζεται το προφίλ των θυμάτων των εγκλημάτων αυτών και οι μορφές επανόρθωσης που μπορούν να τους αποδοθούν. Η συμβολή ολοκληρώνεται με επισήμανση των προκλήσεων που αντιμετωπίζει η εντός αυτής διατυπούμενη πρόταση.
Abstract: This paper examines the possibility of granting international protection (asylum) status to victims of international crimes with environmental consequences as a form of extrajudicial or politically mediated reparation. Firstly, the main parameters of the scholarly debate in international criminal law on environmental protection are addressed. Then, the discussion focuses on those international crimes with ecological impact, which are expected to fuel refugee flows. Finally, the profile of the victims of these crimes and the forms of reparation that can be awarded to them are examined. The contribution concludes by outlining and theorising the challenges faced by the proposed remedial pathway.
International Journal on Minority and Group Rights, 2023
This article examines the options available for redressing collective victimhood, specifically in... more This article examines the options available for redressing collective victimhood, specifically in relation to genocide. First, it analyses how the question of reparations was addressed during the drafting of the Genocide Convention. Then, it focuses on the framework of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court and explores the types of victims the icc can acknowledge and provide remedies for under its Statute and Rules of Procedure and Evidence. Finally, the article concludes by proposing an alternative approach to secure appropriate redress for the violation of the collective right to exist belonging to the ultimate victim of genocide, the group as such.
Journal of Genocide Research, 2023
The article uncovers the connection between Article II(e) of the Genocide Convention and the Gree... more The article uncovers the connection between Article II(e) of the Genocide Convention and the Greek Civil War (1946–49). Through archival research and secondary sources, it reconstructs the Greek legal arguments that framed the transfer of children conducted by the communist guerrillas in Northern Greece as an act of genocide and led to the inclusion of this action in the legal definition of genocide. By analyzing the arguments of the Greek government, it presents a new interpretation of Article II(e) of the Convention. It is contended that the historical antecedent of the provision supports a biopolitical understanding of the genocidal act in question. The article concludes with a more general discussion of the continuing importance of Article II(e).
Kourtis, Dimitrios, The Laws of Humanity and the Allied Commission on Responsibilities (1919): An ExerciseKostas Ifantis, Miltos Sarigiannidis & Dimitrios Akrivoulis (eds), War and Peace: Honorary Volume for Costas Hadjiconstantinou (I. Sideris, Athens, 2022) ISBN: 978-960-08-0942-8 pp. 279-291, 2022
The present contribution, honoring the prolific life and work of Costas Hadjiconstantinou, focuse... more The present contribution, honoring the prolific life and work of Costas Hadjiconstantinou, focuses on the question of postwar accountability as it arose after the end of the First World War. It aims at disenchanting, contextualizing, and clarifying references of later legal scholarship to the ‘laws of humanity’ as a rudimentary legal concept used to penalize atrocities against non-dominant groups, including the massacres of the Ottoman Greeks and Armenians.
The Cyprus Review Vol. 34(1), 2022
A review essay on the work of A. C. Emilianides and the Hellenic School of International Law
Δ/νση Ιστορίας Εθνικής Φρουράς ΓΕΕΦ Υπ. Άμυνας Κυπριακής Δημοκρατίας (επιμ. εκδ.), 200 Χρόνια από την Ελληνική Επανάσταση: Η Συμβολή των Ελλήνων της Κύπρου 103-111, 2021
Σ’ έναν από τους πλέον ιστορικούς πρώιμους λόγους του ενώπιον της Βουλής των Αντιπροσώπων των ΗΠ... more Σ’ έναν από τους πλέον ιστορικούς πρώιμους λόγους του ενώπιον της Βουλής των Αντιπροσώπων των ΗΠΑ, ο μετέπειτα Υπουργός Εξωτερικών και τότε αντιπρόσωπος της πρώτης εκλογικής περιφέρειας της Μασσαχουσέτης, Daniel Webster, αποπειρώμενος να πείσει τα μέλη της αμερικανικής κάτω βουλής να αποστείλουν «Εκπρόσωπο ή Αρμοστή στην Ελλάδα, οποτεδήποτε ο Πρόεδρος φρονήσει σκόπιμο να προβεί σε έναν τέτοιο διορισμό», αναφέρθηκε στις θηριωδίες των Οθωμανών εναντίον των υπόδουλων ελληνικών πληθυσμών. Μετά τη Σφαγή της Χίου (Απρίλιος 1822), ο διαπρεπής ρήτορας έστρεψε την προσοχή του ακροατηρίου του στις Σφαγές της Κύπρου (1821-1827). Όπως είναι γνωστό, οι Σφαγές της Χίου και των Ψαρών, συγκλονίζοντας της δημόσια συνείδηση του Δυτικού Κόσμου, συνέβαλλαν στην εκδήλωση μιας από τις πρώτες νεωτερικές ανθρωπιστικές επεμβάσεις εκ μέρους της Αγγλίας, της Γαλλίας και της Ρωσίας έναντι της Οθωμανικής Αυτοκρατορίας και υπέρ των επαναστατημένων Ελλήνων. Ο λόγος, ασφαλώς, αφορά την Ναυμαχία του Ναυαρίνου (8η/20η Οκτωβρίου 1827), μια από τις αποφασιστικότερες στιγμές του αγώνα, η οποία μελετήθηκε εκτενώς και από την επιστήμη του διεθνούς δικαίου των αρχών του προηγούμενου αιώνα, είτε ως μορφή ειρηνικού ναυτικού αποκλεισμού είτε ως περίπτωση επιτρεπτής ένοπλης επέμβασης χάριν των αρχών του ανθρωπισμού.
Παρά δε την εντύπωση που προκάλεσαν οι σφαγές της Κύπρου στην ευρωπαϊκή, αλλά ιδίως αμερικανική κοινή γνώμη, μια σειρά παραγόντων –που τελικώς οδήγησαν και στην εξαίρεση της νήσου από τις συζητήσεις για τα όρια του νέου ελληνικού κράτους– αποσόβησαν το ενδεχόμενο μιας παρόμοιας επέμβασης εκ μέρους των Μεγάλων Δυνάμεων με σκοπό την προστασία του χριστιανικού πληθυσμού, ο οποίος τελούσε υπό καθεστώς ακραίου διωγμού. Στο πλαίσιο της παρούσας εισήγησης, θα επιχειρηθεί ένας κριτικός αναστοχασμός σχετικά με τις νομικές πτυχές και τα ζητήματα διεθνούς δικαίου (δικαίου των εθνών) που έθετε επί τάπητος η εξέγερση των Ελλήνων της Κύπρου. Τα βασικό ερευνητικό ερώτημα, στο πλαίσιο της σχετικής εισήγησης, έγκειται στο εάν και κατά πόσο υπήρχε δικαίωμα ή έστω δυνατότητα ένοπλης εξέγερσης των υπόδουλων Ελλήνων της νήσου, έναντι της δεσπόζουσας Δύναμης, ένα οι θηριωδίες που ακολούθησαν στο πλαίσιο καταστολής της επανάστασης στην νήσο ήταν ή όχι δικαιολογημένες με βάση το τότε εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο των εθνών και, τέλος, εάν οι ακρότητες των Οθωμανών έναντι του ελληνικού πληθυσμού, και ευρύτερα του χριστιανικού στοιχείου, θα μπορούσαν –σύμφωνα με τους κανόνες του δικαίου των εθνών των απαρχών του 19ου αιώνα– να ενεργοποιήσουν ένα συλλογικό δικαίωμα επέμβασης των Χριστιανικών Δυνάμεων, στο πρότυπο της επέμβασης του 1827.
InDepth (Bimonthly Electronic Newsletter of the Cyprus Center for European and International Affairs of the University of Nicosia) / Special Issue on Greco-Turkish Relations and Cyprus, Sep 30, 2020
According to the standard narrative in both international and human rights law, the protection of... more According to the standard narrative in both international and human rights law, the protection of intangible communitarian interests and the safeguarding of the plurality of cultural voices in both the domestic and the international level forms part of an overall international strategy to prevent and aver atrocity crimes, and more particularly international crimes. Nevertheless, the question of minority protection, which is inescapably linked to the question of cultural pluralism, in international law is more or less disregarded, especially in post-war scholarship. On the contrary, its reoccurrence, especially in the context of Greco-Turkish relationships makes it both contemporary and worth discussing in further detail. The present commentary focusses on the legal status of the Greek ethnic minority in Turkey and the challenges faced by the said minority, discussed from the viewpoint of international and human rights law.
Štefan Siskovič, Ingrid Lanczová & Monika Martišková (eds.), Legal Historical Trends and Perspectives, Vol. ΙΙΙ (Prague: Leges, 2018) pp. 81-101, 2018
The paper in hand will examine the legal means employed by the Nazi authorities in occupied Greec... more The paper in hand will examine the legal means employed by the Nazi authorities in occupied Greece, especially in the territory controlled by the Salonika– Aegean Military Command, so as to pave the way for the implementation of the final solution's genocidal plan vis-à-vis the flourishing Sephardic community of Thessaloniki. From the 'Black Sabbath' order of 11 July 1942 to the yellow star decree of 6 February 1943, the confiscation of Jewish property, the ransom tragedy, the present essay will attempt to systematically document and analyze the methods and means utilized in order to execute a policy of targeting, symbolization, dehumanization and discrimination against the local Jewish population, thus paving the way to the commencement of the mass extermination project, forming part of the actus reus pertaining to the 'crimes of crimes', i.e. genocide.
Full citation: Dimitrios A. Kourtis, ‘State Sovereignty and the Constitutionalization of Internat... more Full citation: Dimitrios A. Kourtis, ‘State Sovereignty and the Constitutionalization of International Law: A Collision of Constitutional Paradigms in Historical Perspective’ in Peter Vyšný, Štefan Siskovič (eds), Právno-historické trendy a výhľady [Legal-Historical Trends and Perspectives], Vol. II (Krakow: Spolok Slovákov v Poľsku, 2017) 16-72 (bibliography 72-100)
Abstract:
The present contribution attempts an expository on the historical evolution of core-concepts, bearing paramount importance for the current debate on the constitutionalization of international law, such as State sovereignty, State consent, and normative verticality. Following the evolutionary course of such proto-political notions as supremacy, authority, and sovereign power, the paper focuses on the unique historical visions of international normativity so as to construe a coherent exegesis for its basic hypothesis, namely the existence of two, partly antagonistic, visions of constitutional ordering in the international sphere, i.e. the westphalian and the communitarian system. By appealing to the history of international law and to the early modern scholarly debate on the typology, functions and purposes of the discipline, the essay in hand aims to discern and describe the fundamental notions upon which a proper constitutional theorem can be construed so as to achieve international law’s noble and universal goals, namely peace, security, stability, and the protection of the basic rights and liberties of the human person. Through the examination of both jusnaturalistic and positive law scholarship, like the writings of Grotius, Zouche, Blackstone, Bentham, Verdross, and Kelsen, scholars who have assisted in the formation of what we know today as international law tout court, the author of the present contribution hopes to place but an intellectual pebble to the long road towards the emancipation of international law from particularity, national egoisms and the all-inclusive exception of unyielding sovereignty, elements fostering impunity and further impeding the process of re-establishing international society as a more humane, just, and secure world — in accordance with the edicts of Right Reason.
Book Chapter 24 / pp. 427-445
As Carl Schmitt has aptly observed all great political concepts po... more Book Chapter 24 / pp. 427-445
As Carl Schmitt has aptly observed all great political concepts possess a certain theological attribute, connotation or origin. By applying the latter doctrine of political theology on international normativity, the author in the present paper attempts to investigate, re-discover and highlight the interdependence between the early theological values and pre-data of the "doctrina christiana", and the initial phase of crystallization of international legal rules via the works of the Great Founders of the scientific discipline in question. Based on this evident interplay between theological concepts of the past and the consolidation of International Law's early doctrines, an attempt is made to discern certain fundamental principles, common to the works of all the Founders, acting as constituent pillars of the international system, establishing a definite hierarchical relation between rules, principles and ultimately rights of International Law's subjects. Furthermore, after reassessing concepts such as the vitorian “totus orbis” and the ideal of the “civitas gentium maxima”, the paper proceeds to reinterpret the function of the early visions‟ enforcement mechanisms aiming at the protection of the fundamental pillars of the international juridical cosmos, a point of paramount importance utilized to confirm the existence of a well-ordered hierarchy between the norms, principles, and rights within the Founders‟ system.
Upon establishing that normative hierarchy in the original visions was based on the higher ontological importance of certain values, necessary for the perpetuation of the system, this proposition is scrutinized so as to attest whether it remains pertinent up to our days of multilevel interdependence and variable international normativity. After drawing some conclusions on the influence of the theological concepts and the doctrinal methods of theology involved in the formation of International Law, the current problematic of normative hierarchy is addressed. Finally, the essay concludes with remarks concerning the future of International Law's orientation regarding the need for a solid (or else) hierarchy, the prospect of further verticalization and a kelsenian exegesis of international adjudication vis-à-vis international community's fundamental norms
Advisory Opinion/Legal Report commissioned by the Panhellenic Lawyers' Association (Π.Ε.Δ., Πανελ... more Advisory Opinion/Legal Report commissioned by the Panhellenic Lawyers' Association (Π.Ε.Δ., Πανελλήνια Ένωση Δικηγόρων)
In the present advisory opinion/legal report the status of the Elgin marbles under the norms and principles of Public International Law is revisited upon the following grounds: (a) The existence and legality of the authorizing unilateral acts of the ottoman officials; (b) The international legal regime regarding the protection of cultural property during the time of removal; (c) The legal deficits of the original title (if any) and their opposability vis-à-vis the British government and her instrumentalities, including the British Museum; (d) Whether the current dispute is properly classified as a dispute of Public International Law, regulated by the provisions, both conventional and customary, of the latter; (e) Whether under the current Public International Law regime, there exist norms or legal concepts, some of them even of peremptory status, which may be deemed applicable; (f) Finally, whether the modern practice of international dispute resolution offers diplomatic and/or judicial fora, suitable for the attainment of a final and mutually beneficial settlement.
EUROPEAN SOCIETY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW, 10th Anniversary Conference, Vienna, 4-6 September 2014, Vol. 4 (Ch. Binder, Ph. Pazartzis & M. Prost eds.), Conference Paper No. 6/2014
European Society of International Law, 10th Anniversary Conference, Agora Address - Forum: Intern... more European Society of International Law, 10th Anniversary Conference, Agora Address - Forum: International Law and Theology (4 Sept. 2014, Vienna)
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Since the epoch of the founding fathers of the Law of Nations, the problematic underlying the very structure of International Law was –inseparably– connected to the order of values supporting the system in question, thus creating a distinct legal order, different from municipal Law and/or the religious authority of Rome and the Canon Law. Springing from the quintessence of the ideotype of the ‘Civitas Christiana’, the ideal of a Great Polity of Nations, came to be regarded a possibly realizable scenario. An international polity of this nature was considered capable of not only regulating, promoting and developing inter-State relations but –ultimately– of construing a coherent and solid basis for the whole mankind to live and to thrive, governed in accordance with the principles of natural justice, equity, sociability and solidarity. Institutions, like the ‘ius communicationis’ and the primacy of the international order (totus orbis) contrasting to the will of the individual state actors, are indicative of the notions of order and hierarchy, already common to the works of the School of Salamanca, and –foremost– those of de Vitoria and Suárez; hence, finally, omnipresent within the grotian doctrine of International Law.
In the present paper, the author attempts to investigate, re-discover and highlight the interdependence between loco primo the early theological values and pre-dublicata of the then-current ‘doctrina christiana’ –concerning the order of values and the ideals of peace, justice, equity, including their implications upon the relations both amongst sovereigns and/or the latter vis-à-vis individuals, subjects or foreigners– and loco secundo the initial phase of consolidation/crystallization of international legal rules via the works of the Great Founders of the scientific discipline in question. In this –almost– primordial stage, great scholars endowed with thorough mastery of both secular (mainly Roman) and canon Law (utriusque Legum peritia) utilizing the Recta Ratio-principle, a parameter already present in the theological discourse, succeeded in creating a systematic background upon which their intellectual successors erected and elaborated what came to be called a truly and totally International (comparing to the schemes of ‘Transnational’ or ‘Inter-state’) Law. The author proceeds to examine the way in which the understanding of morality, justice and good governance, according to the theological doctrines, emancipated the Law of Nations form the omnipotent Divine Law, and –although linking it to the symbolic topos of Natural Law– created a basic hierarchy of rights and respective norms, aiming to materialize the dearly held ideal of a ‘Civitas Maxima Gentium’.
The aforementioned process initiated by de Vitoria, further elaborated and enhanced by Grotius and other prominent scholars of International Law’s early history, although intense, constant and well-founded was not able to eliminate some aspects of the interdependence between established theological concepts and the edifice of the Law of Nations. The strong presence of the Natural Law approach, the appeal to Reason as an authority proper, the notion of natural and distributive justice, the idea of an order to reign upon both sovereigns and subjects and subsequently the rights of these persons under the newly founded Ius Gentium, are but a few parameters of the aforesaid interdependence, further elaborated within the present paper.
Through the discourse on the basis and foundation of the international order, the order of values’ problematic arises, thus opening the way to an even greater debate concerning hierarchy. This issue, already addressed in de Vitoria’s Relectiones Theologicæ and Suárez’s De legibus, retains both its intellectual gravity and practical importance until nowadays. What, commonly, escapes attention –while remaining one of the focal points of this essay– is that de Vitoria’s justification for the right to conquest (much like the justification for the normativity of International Law, induced by all the prominent early scholars) implied a hierarchy of rights, rules and –respectively– of values. An order thus construed, was a system based upon principles and authorities beyond the power of States and sovereigns, more close to the principles of the Divine Law, as conceived by Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas, whose doctrinal influence upon the founders of Ius Gentium and the initial concept of normative hierarchy is also addressed within the present paper.
Finally, after drawing some conclusions on the influence of the theological concepts and the doctrinal methods of theology involved in the formation of International Law, the current problematic of normative hierarchy is addressed. The long leading school of voluntarism, compared to the modern Natural Law theories, is posed under scrutiny, with regard to the issue in question. The linkage between the order of values underlying the modern-day Ius Gentium and its theological predecessors is addressed with an attempt to reconstruct the original notion of hierarchy as envisaged by the Founders of the discipline. The essay concludes with final remarks concerning the future of International Law’s orientation regarding the need for a solid (or else) hierarchy and the prospect of further verticalization.
Paper Presented at the Conference of the Larissa Bar Association on 'The phenomenon of Violence A... more Paper Presented at the Conference of the Larissa Bar Association on 'The phenomenon of Violence Against Women: Prevention & Support', Saturday, March 8th, 2014, at the Conference Hall of the Larissa Bar Association HQ.
Forthcoming (to be submitted to AMDI)
Applications of Civil Law (Epharmoges Astikou Dikaiou) 2/2014, 115, Feb 2014
The Convention (NYC) under scrutiny in the present paper is considered as the most successful mul... more The Convention (NYC) under scrutiny in the present paper is considered as the most successful multilateral instrument within the sector of International Commercial Law. The NYC is imbued by two fundamental principles, namely the principle of (procedurally coined) favour regarding the foreign arbitral award and the rule of protection of the party (and litigant succeeded in the arbitral procedure) seeking the recognition/enforcement of the award. The rule posed by the Art. VII(1) of the NYC aptly confirms the primacy of the aforementioned principles, introducing the concept of the “more favourable law provision”. The saidcluase overturns the traditional doctrine concerning the relation between International and municipal Law (including the rules of lex posterior/specialis), permitting the interested party to select the (more favourable) legal grounds upon which the leave of enforcement will be asked, while excluding and overriding the contractual provisions of the instrument in question. Nevertheless, the NYC proves itself to stand as the more favourable set of rules concerning the recognition and enforcement of foreign awards –as contrasted with both the municipal (Greek) law (preceding the reform enacted by Art. 36 of the Law No 2735-1999) provisions and the rules set by the most important bilateral treaties regulating the matter in hand (namely the Greco-American Treaty of 1951, Greco-German Treaty of 1963, Greco-Cypriot Treaty of 1984)– thus, substantially, facilitating the free movement of foreign awards between the various States.This final remark justifies the classification of the present Convention as aquasi uniform codeon the execution and enforcement of foreign arbitral awards, a quality that explains both the prevalence and the uniformity of application, regardless of the legal system or the juridical order of the forum executionis.
(Impending)
"""CONTENTS:
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—Introd... more """CONTENTS:
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—Introductory Note:
The Importance of understanding the "Lex Mercatoria" Concept for both theory and praxis of Transnational Law and Int’l Commercial Litigation, with an emphasis to the promotion of ad hoc or institutional arbitrations. [p. 3]
—(Index of Authorities) [p. 5]
—I. The Historical Background; The evolutionary course of Lex Mercatoria sedes temporis. [p. 9]
—II. Different scholarly approaches on the trivium of defining the Lex Mercatoria; An attempt towards a conventional definition, according to the formula of "genus proximum-differentia specifica". [p. 14]
—III. The sources of Lex Mercatoria; conceptual antithesis and the on-going debate among scholars. [p. 31]
—IV. A-national Attempts and the Galloping Codification of the Lex Mercatoria; the restatement-like approach of the UNIDROIT Principles of Int’l Comm’l Contracts (UNIDROIT PICC, ed. 2010) and the Lando Commission Principles of European Contract Law (PECLs); the CISG’s paradigm. [p. 34]
—V. The Importance of the International Commercial Terms drafted by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC INCOTERMS, ed. 2010). [p. 44]
—VI. Exequatur and foreign or a-national arbitral awards issued under the light of Lex Mercatoria’s Provisions (with specific reference to the tendencies of English, French and Greek jurisprudence). [p. 50]
—VII. In stead of Conclusion:
Critical remarks on the "raison d’être" of the conceptual phenomenon of Lex Mercatoria. [p. 59]
—(Bibliography) [p. 64]
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Forthcoming (2014)
In the essay in hand the present author re-examines the classic problematic of the 'exorbitant' j... more In the essay in hand the present author re-examines the classic problematic of the 'exorbitant' jurisdiction (namely the jurisdictional connector of nationality) as applied in cases of divorce and parental responsibility within the Greek juridical order. The doctrinal approach is permeated by the Law of Nations and International Human Rights Law analysis, with emphasis placed upon the notion of the ‘best interest of the child’-principle, as recognised by both the CRC and the Regulation (EC) 2201/2003 (BR IIbis). The fundamental idea reappraised within the context of the present paper advocates for the uniform interpretation of this core principle, regardless of the instrument calling for its application, namely whether pertaining to the EU Law or the International Human Rights Law. Finally, the author proposes an alternative tertia pars, aiming to reconcile the ‘excessive’ bases of jurisdiction concept with the current developments within the frame of International and European Law, via the overriding norm ordaining the (as enhanced as possible) protection of the superior interests of the minor, in every procedure and all factual contexts.
"The present article pertains to the infamous Affair "Iran/Contra" (a.k.a Iranogate). Via the con... more "The present article pertains to the infamous Affair "Iran/Contra" (a.k.a Iranogate). Via the conclusion extracted from thorough investigation of the documents in dispose a mere thin line of facts and findings is to be seen rising though the mist of this political scandal. The following topics are to be reviewed into the paper in hand:
The U.S. involvement in Nicaragua, the supportance and assistance for Nicaraguan rebels, the supply of lethal assistance in total breach of the Boland Amendments, North's/Secord's/Hakim's "Enterpise", NEPL's/IBC's/IC's Private Fundraising Nexus, Arms Transaction between USA and Iran via Israel, The Lisboan Airport Crisis, The Direct Arms Sales between CIA and the iranian authorities, The Reagan's part of the story, E. Meese's Investigation, Walsh Independent Council, Congress Select Committees and the Judiciary Review of the Affair. "
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Papers, Essays & Articles by Dimitrios A Kourtis
Abstract: This paper examines the possibility of granting international protection (asylum) status to victims of international crimes with environmental consequences as a form of extrajudicial or politically mediated reparation. Firstly, the main parameters of the scholarly debate in international criminal law on environmental protection are addressed. Then, the discussion focuses on those international crimes with ecological impact, which are expected to fuel refugee flows. Finally, the profile of the victims of these crimes and the forms of reparation that can be awarded to them are examined. The contribution concludes by outlining and theorising the challenges faced by the proposed remedial pathway.
Παρά δε την εντύπωση που προκάλεσαν οι σφαγές της Κύπρου στην ευρωπαϊκή, αλλά ιδίως αμερικανική κοινή γνώμη, μια σειρά παραγόντων –που τελικώς οδήγησαν και στην εξαίρεση της νήσου από τις συζητήσεις για τα όρια του νέου ελληνικού κράτους– αποσόβησαν το ενδεχόμενο μιας παρόμοιας επέμβασης εκ μέρους των Μεγάλων Δυνάμεων με σκοπό την προστασία του χριστιανικού πληθυσμού, ο οποίος τελούσε υπό καθεστώς ακραίου διωγμού. Στο πλαίσιο της παρούσας εισήγησης, θα επιχειρηθεί ένας κριτικός αναστοχασμός σχετικά με τις νομικές πτυχές και τα ζητήματα διεθνούς δικαίου (δικαίου των εθνών) που έθετε επί τάπητος η εξέγερση των Ελλήνων της Κύπρου. Τα βασικό ερευνητικό ερώτημα, στο πλαίσιο της σχετικής εισήγησης, έγκειται στο εάν και κατά πόσο υπήρχε δικαίωμα ή έστω δυνατότητα ένοπλης εξέγερσης των υπόδουλων Ελλήνων της νήσου, έναντι της δεσπόζουσας Δύναμης, ένα οι θηριωδίες που ακολούθησαν στο πλαίσιο καταστολής της επανάστασης στην νήσο ήταν ή όχι δικαιολογημένες με βάση το τότε εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο των εθνών και, τέλος, εάν οι ακρότητες των Οθωμανών έναντι του ελληνικού πληθυσμού, και ευρύτερα του χριστιανικού στοιχείου, θα μπορούσαν –σύμφωνα με τους κανόνες του δικαίου των εθνών των απαρχών του 19ου αιώνα– να ενεργοποιήσουν ένα συλλογικό δικαίωμα επέμβασης των Χριστιανικών Δυνάμεων, στο πρότυπο της επέμβασης του 1827.
Abstract:
The present contribution attempts an expository on the historical evolution of core-concepts, bearing paramount importance for the current debate on the constitutionalization of international law, such as State sovereignty, State consent, and normative verticality. Following the evolutionary course of such proto-political notions as supremacy, authority, and sovereign power, the paper focuses on the unique historical visions of international normativity so as to construe a coherent exegesis for its basic hypothesis, namely the existence of two, partly antagonistic, visions of constitutional ordering in the international sphere, i.e. the westphalian and the communitarian system. By appealing to the history of international law and to the early modern scholarly debate on the typology, functions and purposes of the discipline, the essay in hand aims to discern and describe the fundamental notions upon which a proper constitutional theorem can be construed so as to achieve international law’s noble and universal goals, namely peace, security, stability, and the protection of the basic rights and liberties of the human person. Through the examination of both jusnaturalistic and positive law scholarship, like the writings of Grotius, Zouche, Blackstone, Bentham, Verdross, and Kelsen, scholars who have assisted in the formation of what we know today as international law tout court, the author of the present contribution hopes to place but an intellectual pebble to the long road towards the emancipation of international law from particularity, national egoisms and the all-inclusive exception of unyielding sovereignty, elements fostering impunity and further impeding the process of re-establishing international society as a more humane, just, and secure world — in accordance with the edicts of Right Reason.
As Carl Schmitt has aptly observed all great political concepts possess a certain theological attribute, connotation or origin. By applying the latter doctrine of political theology on international normativity, the author in the present paper attempts to investigate, re-discover and highlight the interdependence between the early theological values and pre-data of the "doctrina christiana", and the initial phase of crystallization of international legal rules via the works of the Great Founders of the scientific discipline in question. Based on this evident interplay between theological concepts of the past and the consolidation of International Law's early doctrines, an attempt is made to discern certain fundamental principles, common to the works of all the Founders, acting as constituent pillars of the international system, establishing a definite hierarchical relation between rules, principles and ultimately rights of International Law's subjects. Furthermore, after reassessing concepts such as the vitorian “totus orbis” and the ideal of the “civitas gentium maxima”, the paper proceeds to reinterpret the function of the early visions‟ enforcement mechanisms aiming at the protection of the fundamental pillars of the international juridical cosmos, a point of paramount importance utilized to confirm the existence of a well-ordered hierarchy between the norms, principles, and rights within the Founders‟ system.
Upon establishing that normative hierarchy in the original visions was based on the higher ontological importance of certain values, necessary for the perpetuation of the system, this proposition is scrutinized so as to attest whether it remains pertinent up to our days of multilevel interdependence and variable international normativity. After drawing some conclusions on the influence of the theological concepts and the doctrinal methods of theology involved in the formation of International Law, the current problematic of normative hierarchy is addressed. Finally, the essay concludes with remarks concerning the future of International Law's orientation regarding the need for a solid (or else) hierarchy, the prospect of further verticalization and a kelsenian exegesis of international adjudication vis-à-vis international community's fundamental norms
In the present advisory opinion/legal report the status of the Elgin marbles under the norms and principles of Public International Law is revisited upon the following grounds: (a) The existence and legality of the authorizing unilateral acts of the ottoman officials; (b) The international legal regime regarding the protection of cultural property during the time of removal; (c) The legal deficits of the original title (if any) and their opposability vis-à-vis the British government and her instrumentalities, including the British Museum; (d) Whether the current dispute is properly classified as a dispute of Public International Law, regulated by the provisions, both conventional and customary, of the latter; (e) Whether under the current Public International Law regime, there exist norms or legal concepts, some of them even of peremptory status, which may be deemed applicable; (f) Finally, whether the modern practice of international dispute resolution offers diplomatic and/or judicial fora, suitable for the attainment of a final and mutually beneficial settlement.
---
Since the epoch of the founding fathers of the Law of Nations, the problematic underlying the very structure of International Law was –inseparably– connected to the order of values supporting the system in question, thus creating a distinct legal order, different from municipal Law and/or the religious authority of Rome and the Canon Law. Springing from the quintessence of the ideotype of the ‘Civitas Christiana’, the ideal of a Great Polity of Nations, came to be regarded a possibly realizable scenario. An international polity of this nature was considered capable of not only regulating, promoting and developing inter-State relations but –ultimately– of construing a coherent and solid basis for the whole mankind to live and to thrive, governed in accordance with the principles of natural justice, equity, sociability and solidarity. Institutions, like the ‘ius communicationis’ and the primacy of the international order (totus orbis) contrasting to the will of the individual state actors, are indicative of the notions of order and hierarchy, already common to the works of the School of Salamanca, and –foremost– those of de Vitoria and Suárez; hence, finally, omnipresent within the grotian doctrine of International Law.
In the present paper, the author attempts to investigate, re-discover and highlight the interdependence between loco primo the early theological values and pre-dublicata of the then-current ‘doctrina christiana’ –concerning the order of values and the ideals of peace, justice, equity, including their implications upon the relations both amongst sovereigns and/or the latter vis-à-vis individuals, subjects or foreigners– and loco secundo the initial phase of consolidation/crystallization of international legal rules via the works of the Great Founders of the scientific discipline in question. In this –almost– primordial stage, great scholars endowed with thorough mastery of both secular (mainly Roman) and canon Law (utriusque Legum peritia) utilizing the Recta Ratio-principle, a parameter already present in the theological discourse, succeeded in creating a systematic background upon which their intellectual successors erected and elaborated what came to be called a truly and totally International (comparing to the schemes of ‘Transnational’ or ‘Inter-state’) Law. The author proceeds to examine the way in which the understanding of morality, justice and good governance, according to the theological doctrines, emancipated the Law of Nations form the omnipotent Divine Law, and –although linking it to the symbolic topos of Natural Law– created a basic hierarchy of rights and respective norms, aiming to materialize the dearly held ideal of a ‘Civitas Maxima Gentium’.
The aforementioned process initiated by de Vitoria, further elaborated and enhanced by Grotius and other prominent scholars of International Law’s early history, although intense, constant and well-founded was not able to eliminate some aspects of the interdependence between established theological concepts and the edifice of the Law of Nations. The strong presence of the Natural Law approach, the appeal to Reason as an authority proper, the notion of natural and distributive justice, the idea of an order to reign upon both sovereigns and subjects and subsequently the rights of these persons under the newly founded Ius Gentium, are but a few parameters of the aforesaid interdependence, further elaborated within the present paper.
Through the discourse on the basis and foundation of the international order, the order of values’ problematic arises, thus opening the way to an even greater debate concerning hierarchy. This issue, already addressed in de Vitoria’s Relectiones Theologicæ and Suárez’s De legibus, retains both its intellectual gravity and practical importance until nowadays. What, commonly, escapes attention –while remaining one of the focal points of this essay– is that de Vitoria’s justification for the right to conquest (much like the justification for the normativity of International Law, induced by all the prominent early scholars) implied a hierarchy of rights, rules and –respectively– of values. An order thus construed, was a system based upon principles and authorities beyond the power of States and sovereigns, more close to the principles of the Divine Law, as conceived by Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas, whose doctrinal influence upon the founders of Ius Gentium and the initial concept of normative hierarchy is also addressed within the present paper.
Finally, after drawing some conclusions on the influence of the theological concepts and the doctrinal methods of theology involved in the formation of International Law, the current problematic of normative hierarchy is addressed. The long leading school of voluntarism, compared to the modern Natural Law theories, is posed under scrutiny, with regard to the issue in question. The linkage between the order of values underlying the modern-day Ius Gentium and its theological predecessors is addressed with an attempt to reconstruct the original notion of hierarchy as envisaged by the Founders of the discipline. The essay concludes with final remarks concerning the future of International Law’s orientation regarding the need for a solid (or else) hierarchy and the prospect of further verticalization.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
—Introductory Note:
The Importance of understanding the "Lex Mercatoria" Concept for both theory and praxis of Transnational Law and Int’l Commercial Litigation, with an emphasis to the promotion of ad hoc or institutional arbitrations. [p. 3]
—(Index of Authorities) [p. 5]
—I. The Historical Background; The evolutionary course of Lex Mercatoria sedes temporis. [p. 9]
—II. Different scholarly approaches on the trivium of defining the Lex Mercatoria; An attempt towards a conventional definition, according to the formula of "genus proximum-differentia specifica". [p. 14]
—III. The sources of Lex Mercatoria; conceptual antithesis and the on-going debate among scholars. [p. 31]
—IV. A-national Attempts and the Galloping Codification of the Lex Mercatoria; the restatement-like approach of the UNIDROIT Principles of Int’l Comm’l Contracts (UNIDROIT PICC, ed. 2010) and the Lando Commission Principles of European Contract Law (PECLs); the CISG’s paradigm. [p. 34]
—V. The Importance of the International Commercial Terms drafted by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC INCOTERMS, ed. 2010). [p. 44]
—VI. Exequatur and foreign or a-national arbitral awards issued under the light of Lex Mercatoria’s Provisions (with specific reference to the tendencies of English, French and Greek jurisprudence). [p. 50]
—VII. In stead of Conclusion:
Critical remarks on the "raison d’être" of the conceptual phenomenon of Lex Mercatoria. [p. 59]
—(Bibliography) [p. 64]
-------------------------------------------------------------------------"""
The U.S. involvement in Nicaragua, the supportance and assistance for Nicaraguan rebels, the supply of lethal assistance in total breach of the Boland Amendments, North's/Secord's/Hakim's "Enterpise", NEPL's/IBC's/IC's Private Fundraising Nexus, Arms Transaction between USA and Iran via Israel, The Lisboan Airport Crisis, The Direct Arms Sales between CIA and the iranian authorities, The Reagan's part of the story, E. Meese's Investigation, Walsh Independent Council, Congress Select Committees and the Judiciary Review of the Affair. "
Abstract: This paper examines the possibility of granting international protection (asylum) status to victims of international crimes with environmental consequences as a form of extrajudicial or politically mediated reparation. Firstly, the main parameters of the scholarly debate in international criminal law on environmental protection are addressed. Then, the discussion focuses on those international crimes with ecological impact, which are expected to fuel refugee flows. Finally, the profile of the victims of these crimes and the forms of reparation that can be awarded to them are examined. The contribution concludes by outlining and theorising the challenges faced by the proposed remedial pathway.
Παρά δε την εντύπωση που προκάλεσαν οι σφαγές της Κύπρου στην ευρωπαϊκή, αλλά ιδίως αμερικανική κοινή γνώμη, μια σειρά παραγόντων –που τελικώς οδήγησαν και στην εξαίρεση της νήσου από τις συζητήσεις για τα όρια του νέου ελληνικού κράτους– αποσόβησαν το ενδεχόμενο μιας παρόμοιας επέμβασης εκ μέρους των Μεγάλων Δυνάμεων με σκοπό την προστασία του χριστιανικού πληθυσμού, ο οποίος τελούσε υπό καθεστώς ακραίου διωγμού. Στο πλαίσιο της παρούσας εισήγησης, θα επιχειρηθεί ένας κριτικός αναστοχασμός σχετικά με τις νομικές πτυχές και τα ζητήματα διεθνούς δικαίου (δικαίου των εθνών) που έθετε επί τάπητος η εξέγερση των Ελλήνων της Κύπρου. Τα βασικό ερευνητικό ερώτημα, στο πλαίσιο της σχετικής εισήγησης, έγκειται στο εάν και κατά πόσο υπήρχε δικαίωμα ή έστω δυνατότητα ένοπλης εξέγερσης των υπόδουλων Ελλήνων της νήσου, έναντι της δεσπόζουσας Δύναμης, ένα οι θηριωδίες που ακολούθησαν στο πλαίσιο καταστολής της επανάστασης στην νήσο ήταν ή όχι δικαιολογημένες με βάση το τότε εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο των εθνών και, τέλος, εάν οι ακρότητες των Οθωμανών έναντι του ελληνικού πληθυσμού, και ευρύτερα του χριστιανικού στοιχείου, θα μπορούσαν –σύμφωνα με τους κανόνες του δικαίου των εθνών των απαρχών του 19ου αιώνα– να ενεργοποιήσουν ένα συλλογικό δικαίωμα επέμβασης των Χριστιανικών Δυνάμεων, στο πρότυπο της επέμβασης του 1827.
Abstract:
The present contribution attempts an expository on the historical evolution of core-concepts, bearing paramount importance for the current debate on the constitutionalization of international law, such as State sovereignty, State consent, and normative verticality. Following the evolutionary course of such proto-political notions as supremacy, authority, and sovereign power, the paper focuses on the unique historical visions of international normativity so as to construe a coherent exegesis for its basic hypothesis, namely the existence of two, partly antagonistic, visions of constitutional ordering in the international sphere, i.e. the westphalian and the communitarian system. By appealing to the history of international law and to the early modern scholarly debate on the typology, functions and purposes of the discipline, the essay in hand aims to discern and describe the fundamental notions upon which a proper constitutional theorem can be construed so as to achieve international law’s noble and universal goals, namely peace, security, stability, and the protection of the basic rights and liberties of the human person. Through the examination of both jusnaturalistic and positive law scholarship, like the writings of Grotius, Zouche, Blackstone, Bentham, Verdross, and Kelsen, scholars who have assisted in the formation of what we know today as international law tout court, the author of the present contribution hopes to place but an intellectual pebble to the long road towards the emancipation of international law from particularity, national egoisms and the all-inclusive exception of unyielding sovereignty, elements fostering impunity and further impeding the process of re-establishing international society as a more humane, just, and secure world — in accordance with the edicts of Right Reason.
As Carl Schmitt has aptly observed all great political concepts possess a certain theological attribute, connotation or origin. By applying the latter doctrine of political theology on international normativity, the author in the present paper attempts to investigate, re-discover and highlight the interdependence between the early theological values and pre-data of the "doctrina christiana", and the initial phase of crystallization of international legal rules via the works of the Great Founders of the scientific discipline in question. Based on this evident interplay between theological concepts of the past and the consolidation of International Law's early doctrines, an attempt is made to discern certain fundamental principles, common to the works of all the Founders, acting as constituent pillars of the international system, establishing a definite hierarchical relation between rules, principles and ultimately rights of International Law's subjects. Furthermore, after reassessing concepts such as the vitorian “totus orbis” and the ideal of the “civitas gentium maxima”, the paper proceeds to reinterpret the function of the early visions‟ enforcement mechanisms aiming at the protection of the fundamental pillars of the international juridical cosmos, a point of paramount importance utilized to confirm the existence of a well-ordered hierarchy between the norms, principles, and rights within the Founders‟ system.
Upon establishing that normative hierarchy in the original visions was based on the higher ontological importance of certain values, necessary for the perpetuation of the system, this proposition is scrutinized so as to attest whether it remains pertinent up to our days of multilevel interdependence and variable international normativity. After drawing some conclusions on the influence of the theological concepts and the doctrinal methods of theology involved in the formation of International Law, the current problematic of normative hierarchy is addressed. Finally, the essay concludes with remarks concerning the future of International Law's orientation regarding the need for a solid (or else) hierarchy, the prospect of further verticalization and a kelsenian exegesis of international adjudication vis-à-vis international community's fundamental norms
In the present advisory opinion/legal report the status of the Elgin marbles under the norms and principles of Public International Law is revisited upon the following grounds: (a) The existence and legality of the authorizing unilateral acts of the ottoman officials; (b) The international legal regime regarding the protection of cultural property during the time of removal; (c) The legal deficits of the original title (if any) and their opposability vis-à-vis the British government and her instrumentalities, including the British Museum; (d) Whether the current dispute is properly classified as a dispute of Public International Law, regulated by the provisions, both conventional and customary, of the latter; (e) Whether under the current Public International Law regime, there exist norms or legal concepts, some of them even of peremptory status, which may be deemed applicable; (f) Finally, whether the modern practice of international dispute resolution offers diplomatic and/or judicial fora, suitable for the attainment of a final and mutually beneficial settlement.
---
Since the epoch of the founding fathers of the Law of Nations, the problematic underlying the very structure of International Law was –inseparably– connected to the order of values supporting the system in question, thus creating a distinct legal order, different from municipal Law and/or the religious authority of Rome and the Canon Law. Springing from the quintessence of the ideotype of the ‘Civitas Christiana’, the ideal of a Great Polity of Nations, came to be regarded a possibly realizable scenario. An international polity of this nature was considered capable of not only regulating, promoting and developing inter-State relations but –ultimately– of construing a coherent and solid basis for the whole mankind to live and to thrive, governed in accordance with the principles of natural justice, equity, sociability and solidarity. Institutions, like the ‘ius communicationis’ and the primacy of the international order (totus orbis) contrasting to the will of the individual state actors, are indicative of the notions of order and hierarchy, already common to the works of the School of Salamanca, and –foremost– those of de Vitoria and Suárez; hence, finally, omnipresent within the grotian doctrine of International Law.
In the present paper, the author attempts to investigate, re-discover and highlight the interdependence between loco primo the early theological values and pre-dublicata of the then-current ‘doctrina christiana’ –concerning the order of values and the ideals of peace, justice, equity, including their implications upon the relations both amongst sovereigns and/or the latter vis-à-vis individuals, subjects or foreigners– and loco secundo the initial phase of consolidation/crystallization of international legal rules via the works of the Great Founders of the scientific discipline in question. In this –almost– primordial stage, great scholars endowed with thorough mastery of both secular (mainly Roman) and canon Law (utriusque Legum peritia) utilizing the Recta Ratio-principle, a parameter already present in the theological discourse, succeeded in creating a systematic background upon which their intellectual successors erected and elaborated what came to be called a truly and totally International (comparing to the schemes of ‘Transnational’ or ‘Inter-state’) Law. The author proceeds to examine the way in which the understanding of morality, justice and good governance, according to the theological doctrines, emancipated the Law of Nations form the omnipotent Divine Law, and –although linking it to the symbolic topos of Natural Law– created a basic hierarchy of rights and respective norms, aiming to materialize the dearly held ideal of a ‘Civitas Maxima Gentium’.
The aforementioned process initiated by de Vitoria, further elaborated and enhanced by Grotius and other prominent scholars of International Law’s early history, although intense, constant and well-founded was not able to eliminate some aspects of the interdependence between established theological concepts and the edifice of the Law of Nations. The strong presence of the Natural Law approach, the appeal to Reason as an authority proper, the notion of natural and distributive justice, the idea of an order to reign upon both sovereigns and subjects and subsequently the rights of these persons under the newly founded Ius Gentium, are but a few parameters of the aforesaid interdependence, further elaborated within the present paper.
Through the discourse on the basis and foundation of the international order, the order of values’ problematic arises, thus opening the way to an even greater debate concerning hierarchy. This issue, already addressed in de Vitoria’s Relectiones Theologicæ and Suárez’s De legibus, retains both its intellectual gravity and practical importance until nowadays. What, commonly, escapes attention –while remaining one of the focal points of this essay– is that de Vitoria’s justification for the right to conquest (much like the justification for the normativity of International Law, induced by all the prominent early scholars) implied a hierarchy of rights, rules and –respectively– of values. An order thus construed, was a system based upon principles and authorities beyond the power of States and sovereigns, more close to the principles of the Divine Law, as conceived by Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas, whose doctrinal influence upon the founders of Ius Gentium and the initial concept of normative hierarchy is also addressed within the present paper.
Finally, after drawing some conclusions on the influence of the theological concepts and the doctrinal methods of theology involved in the formation of International Law, the current problematic of normative hierarchy is addressed. The long leading school of voluntarism, compared to the modern Natural Law theories, is posed under scrutiny, with regard to the issue in question. The linkage between the order of values underlying the modern-day Ius Gentium and its theological predecessors is addressed with an attempt to reconstruct the original notion of hierarchy as envisaged by the Founders of the discipline. The essay concludes with final remarks concerning the future of International Law’s orientation regarding the need for a solid (or else) hierarchy and the prospect of further verticalization.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
—Introductory Note:
The Importance of understanding the "Lex Mercatoria" Concept for both theory and praxis of Transnational Law and Int’l Commercial Litigation, with an emphasis to the promotion of ad hoc or institutional arbitrations. [p. 3]
—(Index of Authorities) [p. 5]
—I. The Historical Background; The evolutionary course of Lex Mercatoria sedes temporis. [p. 9]
—II. Different scholarly approaches on the trivium of defining the Lex Mercatoria; An attempt towards a conventional definition, according to the formula of "genus proximum-differentia specifica". [p. 14]
—III. The sources of Lex Mercatoria; conceptual antithesis and the on-going debate among scholars. [p. 31]
—IV. A-national Attempts and the Galloping Codification of the Lex Mercatoria; the restatement-like approach of the UNIDROIT Principles of Int’l Comm’l Contracts (UNIDROIT PICC, ed. 2010) and the Lando Commission Principles of European Contract Law (PECLs); the CISG’s paradigm. [p. 34]
—V. The Importance of the International Commercial Terms drafted by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC INCOTERMS, ed. 2010). [p. 44]
—VI. Exequatur and foreign or a-national arbitral awards issued under the light of Lex Mercatoria’s Provisions (with specific reference to the tendencies of English, French and Greek jurisprudence). [p. 50]
—VII. In stead of Conclusion:
Critical remarks on the "raison d’être" of the conceptual phenomenon of Lex Mercatoria. [p. 59]
—(Bibliography) [p. 64]
-------------------------------------------------------------------------"""
The U.S. involvement in Nicaragua, the supportance and assistance for Nicaraguan rebels, the supply of lethal assistance in total breach of the Boland Amendments, North's/Secord's/Hakim's "Enterpise", NEPL's/IBC's/IC's Private Fundraising Nexus, Arms Transaction between USA and Iran via Israel, The Lisboan Airport Crisis, The Direct Arms Sales between CIA and the iranian authorities, The Reagan's part of the story, E. Meese's Investigation, Walsh Independent Council, Congress Select Committees and the Judiciary Review of the Affair. "
[2017] Thessalia Times No 13, 16
=
[Περίληψη] Το κράτος αποτελεί τον κεντρικό δρώντα, κατέχει τη θέση-κλειδί στο διεθνές σύστημα ακόμη και σήμερα. Ήδη από τη δεκαετία του ’1990 κι έως την εποχή μας, η διεθνής κοινότητα έχει έρθει αντιμέτωπη με πληθώρα φαιών ζωνών, αμφιλεγόμενων εδαφικών καταστάσεων και σωρεία faits accomplis τα οποία πασχίζουν να ανεύρουν διεθνο-νομική έκφραση και να εδραιωθούν εκ του λόγου τούτου στο διεθνές πεδίο. Στην πλειονότητα των περιπτώσεων ωστόσο πρόκειται περί «π α ρ ά ν ο μ ω ν ε δ α φ ι κ ώ ν κ α τ α σ τ ά σ ε ω ν» οι οποίες δοκιμάζουν την κανονιστική αντοχή της Αρχής της Νομιμότητας (Ex iniuria ius non oritur) εντός των κόλπων του σύγχρονου Διεθνούς Δικαίου. Ποια είναι τα κριτήρια τα οποία θέτει το τελευταίο τούτο για την σύσταση ενός Κράτους; Η μη τήρηση της Αρχής της Νομιμότητας κατά την ιδρυτική περίοδο απωθεί το ενδεχόμενο εδραίωσης μιας εδαφικής οντότητας; Πότε το Διεθνές Δίκαιο επιβάλλει θ ε τ ι κ ή υ π ο χ ρ έ ω σ η Μη Αναγνώρισης ορισμένης εδαφικής οντότητας στα κράτη-μέλη της διεθνούς κοινότητας; Το ‘Χαλιφάτο’ του ‘ΙΣΛΑΜΙΚΟΥ ΚΡΑΤΟΥΣ ΤΟΥ ΙΡΑΚ ΚΑΙ ΤΟΥ ΛΕΒΑΝΤΕ (ΣΥΡΙΑΣ)’ είναι κράτος; Θα μπορούσε να θεωρηθεί κράτος και να αναγνωρισθεί στο διεθνές πεδίο; Ή μήπως υπάρχει μια θεμελιακή ασυμβατότητα;
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συνταγµαταρχών, «η κοινωνία δεν αισθανόταν πλέον τον ίδιο
αποτροπιασµό» για τα εγκλήµατα πολέµου των ∆υνάµεων του
Αξονα και άρα αυτά θα έπρεπε να παραγραφούν, έκανε ενώπιον
ειδικής επιτροπής του ΟΗΕ το 1967 η τότε εκπρόσωπος
της Ελλάδας (και µετέπειτα βουλευτίνα µε τη Ν.∆.) Αλεξάνδρα
Μαντζουλίνου, απαλλάσσοντας έτσι µε τις ευλογίες της χούντας
εκείνους που τέλεσαν τα ειδεχθέστερα εγκλήµατα της σύγχρονης
Ιστορίας ● Τη σχετική έρευνα διεξήγαγε ο δικηγόρος ∆ηµήτρης
Κούρτης, ο οποίος µιλά στην «Εφ.Συν.»
The Conference is in memory of the late Aristides Coudounaris and will be held at the University of Nicosia on 7-8 February 2020.