The spread of Covid-19 in Aotearoa New Zealand has been accompanied by an increase in discriminat... more The spread of Covid-19 in Aotearoa New Zealand has been accompanied by an increase in discrimination, stigma, and racism toward individuals within the aggregated Asian ethnicity grouping (Nielsen, 2021). Chinese and other Asian groups have been blamed for Covid-19 in Aotearoa (Nguyen et al., 2021). The media reported incidents of Asian people being harassed after the spread of Covid-19 in Aotearoa (Te, 2020). The Human Rights Commission recorded historically large ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION: Anti-Asian racism was a feature of the social response to the Covid-19 pandemic, and its impact on the well-being of Asian communities warrants closer examination. The current study aimed to gauge whether the sense of belonging mitigated the adverse effects of racism on life satisfaction for self-identified Asian New Zealanders. METHODS: This analysis included 1341 responses to a cross-sectional online survey conducted in 2021. Descriptive analyses outline how components of a sense of belonging were distributed among participants and those who experienced racism during the Covid-19 pandemic. We used linear regression to examine the role of a sense of belonging as a potential pathway variable in the association between experiencing racism and life satisfaction. FINDINGS: In this survey, four out of 10 participants reported experiencing racism in the first 18 months of the pandemic. Participants' life satisfaction decreased slightly since January 2020 (p<0.001). Experiencing racism was associated with decreased life satisfaction. All the components of sense of belonging reduced the magnitude of this negative association between racism experience and life satisfaction, in particular, expressing one's own ethnic identity and belonging in Aotearoa. CONCLUSIONS: Given that anti-Asian racism is currently a feature of life and a significant stressor during the pandemic, this study provides empirical evidence of the protective role of a sense of belonging against anti-Asian racism. This study focused on Asian members in Aotearoa New Zealand, but its practical implications have the potential to support other minoritised ethnic communities who also experience racism during the pandemic and beyond.
With about 7.5 million people, the Korean diaspora is concentrated in China, Japan, North America... more With about 7.5 million people, the Korean diaspora is concentrated in China, Japan, North America, and the former Soviet Union. Since the 1990s, many ethnic Koreans have been “returning” to South Korea, their putative ethnic homeland. Significantly, their treatment by the state has been unequal: On issues of residency and employment rights, ethnic Koreans from China (Chosŏnjok) and the former Soviet Union were relegated to second-class status compared to those from North America. This inequality is encapsulated in the phrase, used by a number of scholars, the “hierarchy of nationhood.” Surprisingly, perhaps, the Chosŏnjok community challenged this unequal treatment by asserting rights based on colonial victimhood, ethnic sameness, and cultural authenticity. While such expressions of entitlement are not unusual among marginalized diasporic groups, the Chosŏnjok achieved something remarkable, namely, they succeeded in gaining political and economic rights initially denied by the Korean state. Simply put, they successfully challenged the hierarchy of nationhood. Using a discursive institutional framework, we endeavor to explain how and why entitlement claims by the Chosŏnjok were effective. More specifically, we argue that the struggle by Chosŏnjok to overturn the hierarchy of nationhood had little to nothing to do with a coercive, dyadic power struggle against the Korean state, but was instead a fundamentally discursive struggle, which itself is a product or reflection of discursive agency, both on the part of Chosŏnjok but also, crucially, on the part of their key allies—religious leaders and civic organizations—in South Korea.
As the leading transnational lifestyle between China and South Korea, Chosonjok has gained much a... more As the leading transnational lifestyle between China and South Korea, Chosonjok has gained much attention from the governments of China and South Korea. While the aim of Chinese Zhonghua nationalism is to hold onto the loyalties of its national minorities, South ...
Published in 1999, this book is a collection of nine articles written by well-known Koreanologist... more Published in 1999, this book is a collection of nine articles written by well-known Koreanologists of North America. Critical reviews of Korean nationalism have been rare so far because of the sensitivity of the issue and also because of the hegemonic Status of the ...
Joseonjok and Goryeo saram diasporic return migrants, respectively from China and Uzbekistan, set... more Joseonjok and Goryeo saram diasporic return migrants, respectively from China and Uzbekistan, settled in South Korea from the early 1990s and have experienced discrimination and alienation by their South Korean co-ethnics. Joseonjok, who maintained Korean language, generally occupy higher economic and social status than Goryeo saram, who lost their Korean language capacity. In the bottom of ethnic hierarchy, Goryeo saram tend to resent both Joseonjok and South Koreans. In doing so, they tend to view their co-ethnics as “uncivilized” people while they consider themselves more “civilized” people with “Russian heritage” (even though most of them were born and raised in Uzbekistan). Comparison of the diasporic homecomings of Joseonjok and Goryeo saram provides important insights on how diasporic people build and recreate their ethnonational identities.
Chosŏnjok migrant brides are Korean Chinese women who married South Korean men (hereafter Korean ... more Chosŏnjok migrant brides are Korean Chinese women who married South Korean men (hereafter Korean men). The number of Chosŏnjok migrant brides increased rapidly until recently due to the attempts of the central and local governments of Korea to resolve bride shortages in rural areas in the early 1990s and the Koreans' preference for ethnic Korean brides over non-Korean foreign brides.
Publikationsansicht. 22349895. Korea and Its Futures: Unification and the Unfinished War (review)... more Publikationsansicht. 22349895. Korea and Its Futures: Unification and the Unfinished War (review) (2006). Song, Changzoo. Abstract. Korean Studies - Volume 30, 2006. Details der Publikation. ...
This is a case study of the cross-ethnicization and globalization of an ethnic food by entreprene... more This is a case study of the cross-ethnicization and globalization of an ethnic food by entrepreneurial Korean Chinese. Korean Chinese (also referred to as Joseonjok or Chaoxianzu) in China came from a strong agricultural background with little tradition of commerce and no tradition of consuming lamb meat. However, when Xinjiang-style barbecue-lamb skewers were introduced to their community in the early 1980s, Korean Chinese fell in love with this exotic food. Soon, Korean Chinese entrepreneurs began opening their own barbecue-lamb-skewer restaurants. Within the next two decades, they transformed this humble street food into a luxurious gourmet food through various innovative measures. They also globalized the barbecue-lamb-skewer business by expanding it to other cities in China, South Korea, Japan, the United States and beyond. Based on fieldwork conducted in Korean Chinese communities in China, South Korea and Japan, we found that their transnational coethnic networks were the key behind this intriguing success in ethnic entrepreneurialism. This paper explores how the Korean Chinese developed their transnational coethnic networks, and how these networks contributed to this formerly non-coethnic lamb-skewer business.
This chapter begins with a historical and contemporary overview of the Korean diaspora with a foc... more This chapter begins with a historical and contemporary overview of the Korean diaspora with a focus on diasporic and ethnic return migration and compares it to other Asian diasporas covered in this book. The chapter then analyzes the various causes of return and ethnic return migration in these Asian diasporas, which are driven more by instrumental and practical motives rather than primordial ethnic attachments and affinities to the homeland. The role of homeland governments’ diasporic engagement policies is also examined, which reach out to diasporic populations as an asset and resource and encourages them to return home. These policies are based on instrumental concerns related to the role that diasporas can play in national economic development, but also on a strong sense of ethnocultural affinity between homeland governments and their diasporic peoples.
With the easing of the Cold War in the late 1980s and the consequent normalization of diplomatic ... more With the easing of the Cold War in the late 1980s and the consequent normalization of diplomatic relations between China and South Korea (1992), there has been rapid growth in transnational migrations between the two countries. Today there are over one million Chinese residents in South Korea and they include about 25,000 old Huarizo residents, whose ancestors migrated to the Korean peninsula between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and newcomers who arrived in South Korea after the 1990s. The new Chinese transnational migrants in South Korea include both Chaoxianzu (Korean Chinese, whose number is nearly 650,000) and Han Chinese (xin yimin, whose number exceeds 350,000). These three groups of “Chinese” are different from each other in many regards. Most of the old Huarizo have Taiwanese citizenship and they tend to distinguish themselves from the new Han and Chaoxianzu migrants. Chaoxianzu and xin yimin also show differences between them in terms of their migration and adaptation patterns. While most of them came to South Korea as migrant workers in the 1990s and 2000s, there has been an increasing number of businesspeople, professionals, and students in the 2010s. This chapter explores some of the prominent differences among the old Huarizo, Chaoxianzu, and xin yimin migrants in South Korea in terms of their legal status and adaptation patterns.
The spread of Covid-19 in Aotearoa New Zealand has been accompanied by an increase in discriminat... more The spread of Covid-19 in Aotearoa New Zealand has been accompanied by an increase in discrimination, stigma, and racism toward individuals within the aggregated Asian ethnicity grouping (Nielsen, 2021). Chinese and other Asian groups have been blamed for Covid-19 in Aotearoa (Nguyen et al., 2021). The media reported incidents of Asian people being harassed after the spread of Covid-19 in Aotearoa (Te, 2020). The Human Rights Commission recorded historically large ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION: Anti-Asian racism was a feature of the social response to the Covid-19 pandemic, and its impact on the well-being of Asian communities warrants closer examination. The current study aimed to gauge whether the sense of belonging mitigated the adverse effects of racism on life satisfaction for self-identified Asian New Zealanders. METHODS: This analysis included 1341 responses to a cross-sectional online survey conducted in 2021. Descriptive analyses outline how components of a sense of belonging were distributed among participants and those who experienced racism during the Covid-19 pandemic. We used linear regression to examine the role of a sense of belonging as a potential pathway variable in the association between experiencing racism and life satisfaction. FINDINGS: In this survey, four out of 10 participants reported experiencing racism in the first 18 months of the pandemic. Participants' life satisfaction decreased slightly since January 2020 (p<0.001). Experiencing racism was associated with decreased life satisfaction. All the components of sense of belonging reduced the magnitude of this negative association between racism experience and life satisfaction, in particular, expressing one's own ethnic identity and belonging in Aotearoa. CONCLUSIONS: Given that anti-Asian racism is currently a feature of life and a significant stressor during the pandemic, this study provides empirical evidence of the protective role of a sense of belonging against anti-Asian racism. This study focused on Asian members in Aotearoa New Zealand, but its practical implications have the potential to support other minoritised ethnic communities who also experience racism during the pandemic and beyond.
With about 7.5 million people, the Korean diaspora is concentrated in China, Japan, North America... more With about 7.5 million people, the Korean diaspora is concentrated in China, Japan, North America, and the former Soviet Union. Since the 1990s, many ethnic Koreans have been “returning” to South Korea, their putative ethnic homeland. Significantly, their treatment by the state has been unequal: On issues of residency and employment rights, ethnic Koreans from China (Chosŏnjok) and the former Soviet Union were relegated to second-class status compared to those from North America. This inequality is encapsulated in the phrase, used by a number of scholars, the “hierarchy of nationhood.” Surprisingly, perhaps, the Chosŏnjok community challenged this unequal treatment by asserting rights based on colonial victimhood, ethnic sameness, and cultural authenticity. While such expressions of entitlement are not unusual among marginalized diasporic groups, the Chosŏnjok achieved something remarkable, namely, they succeeded in gaining political and economic rights initially denied by the Korean state. Simply put, they successfully challenged the hierarchy of nationhood. Using a discursive institutional framework, we endeavor to explain how and why entitlement claims by the Chosŏnjok were effective. More specifically, we argue that the struggle by Chosŏnjok to overturn the hierarchy of nationhood had little to nothing to do with a coercive, dyadic power struggle against the Korean state, but was instead a fundamentally discursive struggle, which itself is a product or reflection of discursive agency, both on the part of Chosŏnjok but also, crucially, on the part of their key allies—religious leaders and civic organizations—in South Korea.
As the leading transnational lifestyle between China and South Korea, Chosonjok has gained much a... more As the leading transnational lifestyle between China and South Korea, Chosonjok has gained much attention from the governments of China and South Korea. While the aim of Chinese Zhonghua nationalism is to hold onto the loyalties of its national minorities, South ...
Published in 1999, this book is a collection of nine articles written by well-known Koreanologist... more Published in 1999, this book is a collection of nine articles written by well-known Koreanologists of North America. Critical reviews of Korean nationalism have been rare so far because of the sensitivity of the issue and also because of the hegemonic Status of the ...
Joseonjok and Goryeo saram diasporic return migrants, respectively from China and Uzbekistan, set... more Joseonjok and Goryeo saram diasporic return migrants, respectively from China and Uzbekistan, settled in South Korea from the early 1990s and have experienced discrimination and alienation by their South Korean co-ethnics. Joseonjok, who maintained Korean language, generally occupy higher economic and social status than Goryeo saram, who lost their Korean language capacity. In the bottom of ethnic hierarchy, Goryeo saram tend to resent both Joseonjok and South Koreans. In doing so, they tend to view their co-ethnics as “uncivilized” people while they consider themselves more “civilized” people with “Russian heritage” (even though most of them were born and raised in Uzbekistan). Comparison of the diasporic homecomings of Joseonjok and Goryeo saram provides important insights on how diasporic people build and recreate their ethnonational identities.
Chosŏnjok migrant brides are Korean Chinese women who married South Korean men (hereafter Korean ... more Chosŏnjok migrant brides are Korean Chinese women who married South Korean men (hereafter Korean men). The number of Chosŏnjok migrant brides increased rapidly until recently due to the attempts of the central and local governments of Korea to resolve bride shortages in rural areas in the early 1990s and the Koreans' preference for ethnic Korean brides over non-Korean foreign brides.
Publikationsansicht. 22349895. Korea and Its Futures: Unification and the Unfinished War (review)... more Publikationsansicht. 22349895. Korea and Its Futures: Unification and the Unfinished War (review) (2006). Song, Changzoo. Abstract. Korean Studies - Volume 30, 2006. Details der Publikation. ...
This is a case study of the cross-ethnicization and globalization of an ethnic food by entreprene... more This is a case study of the cross-ethnicization and globalization of an ethnic food by entrepreneurial Korean Chinese. Korean Chinese (also referred to as Joseonjok or Chaoxianzu) in China came from a strong agricultural background with little tradition of commerce and no tradition of consuming lamb meat. However, when Xinjiang-style barbecue-lamb skewers were introduced to their community in the early 1980s, Korean Chinese fell in love with this exotic food. Soon, Korean Chinese entrepreneurs began opening their own barbecue-lamb-skewer restaurants. Within the next two decades, they transformed this humble street food into a luxurious gourmet food through various innovative measures. They also globalized the barbecue-lamb-skewer business by expanding it to other cities in China, South Korea, Japan, the United States and beyond. Based on fieldwork conducted in Korean Chinese communities in China, South Korea and Japan, we found that their transnational coethnic networks were the key behind this intriguing success in ethnic entrepreneurialism. This paper explores how the Korean Chinese developed their transnational coethnic networks, and how these networks contributed to this formerly non-coethnic lamb-skewer business.
This chapter begins with a historical and contemporary overview of the Korean diaspora with a foc... more This chapter begins with a historical and contemporary overview of the Korean diaspora with a focus on diasporic and ethnic return migration and compares it to other Asian diasporas covered in this book. The chapter then analyzes the various causes of return and ethnic return migration in these Asian diasporas, which are driven more by instrumental and practical motives rather than primordial ethnic attachments and affinities to the homeland. The role of homeland governments’ diasporic engagement policies is also examined, which reach out to diasporic populations as an asset and resource and encourages them to return home. These policies are based on instrumental concerns related to the role that diasporas can play in national economic development, but also on a strong sense of ethnocultural affinity between homeland governments and their diasporic peoples.
With the easing of the Cold War in the late 1980s and the consequent normalization of diplomatic ... more With the easing of the Cold War in the late 1980s and the consequent normalization of diplomatic relations between China and South Korea (1992), there has been rapid growth in transnational migrations between the two countries. Today there are over one million Chinese residents in South Korea and they include about 25,000 old Huarizo residents, whose ancestors migrated to the Korean peninsula between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and newcomers who arrived in South Korea after the 1990s. The new Chinese transnational migrants in South Korea include both Chaoxianzu (Korean Chinese, whose number is nearly 650,000) and Han Chinese (xin yimin, whose number exceeds 350,000). These three groups of “Chinese” are different from each other in many regards. Most of the old Huarizo have Taiwanese citizenship and they tend to distinguish themselves from the new Han and Chaoxianzu migrants. Chaoxianzu and xin yimin also show differences between them in terms of their migration and adaptation patterns. While most of them came to South Korea as migrant workers in the 1990s and 2000s, there has been an increasing number of businesspeople, professionals, and students in the 2010s. This chapter explores some of the prominent differences among the old Huarizo, Chaoxianzu, and xin yimin migrants in South Korea in terms of their legal status and adaptation patterns.
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