Previous research suggests that time orientation differs as a function of national culture. Natio... more Previous research suggests that time orientation differs as a function of national culture. National cultures often cluster together by region, thus regional generalizations can provide insights on how cultures in a given cluster perceive time. We consider the unique case of bi-cultural New Zealand with two cultures, the European New Zealanders (Pākehā) and the indigenous Māori from historically contrasting temporal clusters: Anglo-American and South Pacific. To demonstrate the ways in which Pākehā and Māori differ in their perspectives on time orientation we take our analysis beyond the basic generalizations based on regional clusters and consider the cultural roots of Māori time perceptions. Specifically we consider differences between these two cultures along the theoretical dimensions of clock vs. event time, punctuality, and past/present/future orientations. With respect to Māori culture, we argue that sociocentricity, including different conceptualizations of self, and a unique historical perspective form the basis for the discernible differences between Pākehā and Māori in terms of time perspectives. The endurance of these different perceptions of time, despite over 160 years of Māori and Pākehā social and cultural integration, testify to the centrality of time orientation as a fundamental cultural value. Managerial implications of understanding these cross-cultural differences in time orientation for both domestic and international business are discussed.
at least they enabled me to pass from one space to another . It is hoped that these ideas add use... more at least they enabled me to pass from one space to another . It is hoped that these ideas add usefully to the growing pool of conceptual resources Māori psychologists are generating. As we generate our ideas collectively, and continue to interpret non Māori perspectives to suit our own needs and aspirations, we will continue to develop not just bridges between spaces -but also ensure our own space continues to expand in new directions.
Māori, the indigenous peoples of New Zealand, experience a range of negative outcomes. Psychologi... more Māori, the indigenous peoples of New Zealand, experience a range of negative outcomes. Psychological models and interventions aiming to improve outcomes for Māori tend to be founded on a 'culture-as-cure' model. This view promotes cultural efficacy as a critical resilience factor that should improve outcomes for Māori. This is a founding premise of initiatives for Indigenous peoples in many nations. However, research modeling the outcomes of increased cultural efficacy for Indigenous peoples, such as Māori, remains limited. We present cross-sectional data modeling the links, and possible causal direction, between Māori cultural efficacy and active identity engagement and levels of (1) satisfaction with personal circumstances and life versus (2) satisfaction with government and the state of the nation more generally (N = 93 Māori). Our data support an opposing outcomes model in which Māori cultural efficacy predicts satisfaction with personal aspects of life, but may simultaneously decrease satisfaction with the nation and methods of governance for Māori peoples. Possible mechanisms governing these opposing effects are discussed.
The Kessler-6 (K6) is a six-item self-report measure of non-specific psychological distress desig... more The Kessler-6 (K6) is a six-item self-report measure of non-specific psychological distress designed for use in population health screening surveys. This study documents item response parameters and ethnic group differences in the K6 among a sample of New Zealand adults (N = 4401). We also compare results based on item response-weighting and classical summative scoring procedures. Analyses based on Item Response Theory indicated that the K6 had good measurement precision in the New Zealand population. In terms of ethnic group differences, Pacific and Asian peoples exhibited the highest levels of psychological distress across both scoring methods (12.3% of Pacific peoples and 9.9% of Asian peoples scored in the K6 range indicative of serious psychological distress), whereas Māori and Pākehā/European peoples showed (relatively) lower levels of psychological distress (7.2% of Māori and 4.7% of Pākehā/Europeans). Older people, parents, and those who were in a committed relationship, employed, and more affluent people had lower levels of psychological distress compared to their respective counterparts. Nevertheless, the high level of psychological distress experienced by Asian peoples held when adjusting for these (and other) demographic characteristics. The need for further research and policywide interventions addressing the disparity in psychological health outcomes experienced by different ethnic groups in New Zealand is discussed.
Page 1. Identity construction and reconstruction: the role of socio-historical contexts in shapin... more Page 1. Identity construction and reconstruction: the role of socio-historical contexts in shaping Ma¯ori women's identity Carla Anne Houkamau* Department of Management and International Business, The University of Auckland ...
Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology, Jan 12, 2015
The aim of the current research is to test predictions derived from the rejection-identification ... more The aim of the current research is to test predictions derived from the rejection-identification model and research on collective action using cross-sectional (Study 1) and longitudinal (Study 2) methods. Specifically, an integration of these 2 literatures suggest that recognition of discrimination can have simultaneous positive relationships with well-being and engagement in collective action via the formation of a strong ingroup identity. We test these predictions in 2 studies using data from a large national probability sample of Māori (the indigenous peoples of New Zealand), collected as part of the New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study (Ns for Study 1 and 2 were 1,981 and 1,373, respectively). Consistent with the extant research, Study 1 showed that perceived discrimination was directly linked with decreased life satisfaction, but indirectly linked with increased life satisfaction through higher levels of ethnic identification. Perceived discrimination was also directly linked...
Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 2015
The aim of the current research is to test predictions derived from the rejection-identification ... more The aim of the current research is to test predictions derived from the rejection-identification model and research on collective action using cross-sectional (Study 1) and longitudinal (Study 2) methods. Specifically, an integration of these 2 literatures suggest that recognition of discrimination can have simultaneous positive relationships with well-being and engagement in collective action via the formation of a strong ingroup identity. We test these predictions in 2 studies using data from a large national probability sample of Māori (the indigenous peoples of New Zealand), collected as part of the New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study (Ns for Study 1 and 2 were 1,981 and 1,373, respectively). Consistent with the extant research, Study 1 showed that perceived discrimination was directly linked with decreased life satisfaction, but indirectly linked with increased life satisfaction through higher levels of ethnic identification. Perceived discrimination was also directly linked with increased support for Māori rights and indirectly linked with increased support for Māori rights through higher levels of ethnic identification. Study 2 replicated these findings using longitudinal data and identified multiple bidirectional paths between perceived discrimination, ethnic identity, well-being, and support for collective action. These findings replicate and extend the rejection-identification model in a novel cultural context by demonstrating via cross-sectional (Study 1) and longitudinal (Study 2) analyses that the recognition of discrimination can both motivate support for political rights and increase well-being by strengthening ingroup identity. (PsycINFO Database Record
We compared the self-reported subjective wellbeing of Māori and New Zealand (NZ) Europeans in two... more We compared the self-reported subjective wellbeing of Māori and New Zealand (NZ) Europeans in two NZ national postal samples. The first sample was collected in 2005 before the global financial crisis of 2007/2010. The second was collected in 2009 while the crisis was ongoing. Both samples contained large and arguably representative samples of the indigenous peoples of NZ, Māori (Ns = 289 and 964) as well as the nowmajority group, NZ Europeans (Ns = 2,769 and 4,073). NZ Europeans' scores on the Personal Wellbeing Index (PWI) were near-identical across the 2005 and 2009 samples. However, Māori, who were already lower than NZ Europeans on the PWI in 2005, showed a further decrease in 2009. We argue that this gap in wellbeing widened because material advantages experienced by NZ Europeans as a social group provides a systemic buffer which protects their personal wellbeing from the impact of economic privation. Māori, who had already experienced systemic disadvantage, were not privileged with this buffer, and thus, the effects of the 2007/2010 global financial crisis impacted their personal wellbeing to a greater extent.
Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology, Jan 16, 2015
Māori are the indigenous peoples of New Zealand. However, the term 'Māori' can refer to a... more Māori are the indigenous peoples of New Zealand. However, the term 'Māori' can refer to a wide range of people of varying ethnic compositions and cultural identity. We present a statistical model identifying 6 distinct types, or 'Māori Identity Signatures,' and estimate their proportion in the Māori population. The model is tested using a Latent Profile Analysis of a national probability sample of 686 Māori drawn from the New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study. We identify 6 distinct signatures: Traditional Essentialists (22.6%), Traditional Inclusives (16%), High Moderates (31.7%), Low Moderates (18.7%), Spiritually Orientated (4.1%), and Disassociated (6.9%). These distinct Identity Signatures predicted variation in deprivation, age, mixed-ethnic affiliation, and religion. This research presents the first formal statistical model assessing how people's identity as Māori is psychologically structured, documents the relative proportion of these different patterns...
Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology, 2013
We argue that there is a need for culture-specific measures of identity that delineate the factor... more We argue that there is a need for culture-specific measures of identity that delineate the factors that most make sense for specific cultural groups. One such measure, recently developed specifically for Māori peoples, is the Multi-Dimensional Model of Māori Identity and Cultural Engagement (MMM-ICE). Māori are the indigenous peoples of New Zealand. The MMM-ICE is a 6-factor measure that assesses the following aspects of identity and cultural engagement as Māori: (a) group membership evaluation, (b) socio-political consciousness, (c) cultural efficacy and active identity engagement, (d) spirituality, (e) interdependent self-concept, and (f) authenticity beliefs. This article examines the scale properties of the MMM-ICE using item response theory (IRT) analysis in a sample of 492 Māori. The MMM-ICE subscales showed reasonably even levels of measurement precision across the latent trait range. Analysis of age (cohort) effects further indicated that most aspects of Māori identification...
We update and validate the revised Multidimensional Model of Māori Identity and Cultural Engageme... more We update and validate the revised Multidimensional Model of Māori Identity and Cultural Engagement (MMM-ICE2) by including a seventh Perceived Appearance subscale. The MMM-ICE2 is designed to assess the subjective experiences, efficacy and evaluation of different facets of identity for Māori (the indigenous peoples of New Zealand). Confirmatory Factor Analysis of an online Māori community sample (N = 276) supported the revised seven-factor model assessing Group Membership Evaluation, Cultural Efficacy and Active Identity Engagement, Interdependent Self-Concept, Spirituality, Socio-Political Consciousness, Authenticity Beliefs, and the new Perceived Appearance subscale. The Perceived Appearance subscale was internally reliable and predicted unique variation in perceived discrimination and mixed ethnic affiliation as both Māori and European when adjusting for the other MMM-ICE2 subscale scores. The MMM-ICE2 is a public domain, quantitative self-report measure for use in statistical models to predict and understand the outcomes and protective function of different aspects of identity for Māori.
Previous research suggests that time orientation differs as a function of national culture. Natio... more Previous research suggests that time orientation differs as a function of national culture. National cultures often cluster together by region, thus regional generalizations can provide insights on how cultures in a given cluster perceive time. We consider the unique case of bi-cultural New Zealand with two cultures, the European New Zealanders (Pākehā) and the indigenous Māori from historically contrasting temporal clusters: Anglo-American and South Pacific. To demonstrate the ways in which Pākehā and Māori differ in their perspectives on time orientation we take our analysis beyond the basic generalizations based on regional clusters and consider the cultural roots of Māori time perceptions. Specifically we consider differences between these two cultures along the theoretical dimensions of clock vs. event time, punctuality, and past/present/future orientations. With respect to Māori culture, we argue that sociocentricity, including different conceptualizations of self, and a unique historical perspective form the basis for the discernible differences between Pākehā and Māori in terms of time perspectives. The endurance of these different perceptions of time, despite over 160 years of Māori and Pākehā social and cultural integration, testify to the centrality of time orientation as a fundamental cultural value. Managerial implications of understanding these cross-cultural differences in time orientation for both domestic and international business are discussed.
at least they enabled me to pass from one space to another . It is hoped that these ideas add use... more at least they enabled me to pass from one space to another . It is hoped that these ideas add usefully to the growing pool of conceptual resources Māori psychologists are generating. As we generate our ideas collectively, and continue to interpret non Māori perspectives to suit our own needs and aspirations, we will continue to develop not just bridges between spaces -but also ensure our own space continues to expand in new directions.
Māori, the indigenous peoples of New Zealand, experience a range of negative outcomes. Psychologi... more Māori, the indigenous peoples of New Zealand, experience a range of negative outcomes. Psychological models and interventions aiming to improve outcomes for Māori tend to be founded on a 'culture-as-cure' model. This view promotes cultural efficacy as a critical resilience factor that should improve outcomes for Māori. This is a founding premise of initiatives for Indigenous peoples in many nations. However, research modeling the outcomes of increased cultural efficacy for Indigenous peoples, such as Māori, remains limited. We present cross-sectional data modeling the links, and possible causal direction, between Māori cultural efficacy and active identity engagement and levels of (1) satisfaction with personal circumstances and life versus (2) satisfaction with government and the state of the nation more generally (N = 93 Māori). Our data support an opposing outcomes model in which Māori cultural efficacy predicts satisfaction with personal aspects of life, but may simultaneously decrease satisfaction with the nation and methods of governance for Māori peoples. Possible mechanisms governing these opposing effects are discussed.
The Kessler-6 (K6) is a six-item self-report measure of non-specific psychological distress desig... more The Kessler-6 (K6) is a six-item self-report measure of non-specific psychological distress designed for use in population health screening surveys. This study documents item response parameters and ethnic group differences in the K6 among a sample of New Zealand adults (N = 4401). We also compare results based on item response-weighting and classical summative scoring procedures. Analyses based on Item Response Theory indicated that the K6 had good measurement precision in the New Zealand population. In terms of ethnic group differences, Pacific and Asian peoples exhibited the highest levels of psychological distress across both scoring methods (12.3% of Pacific peoples and 9.9% of Asian peoples scored in the K6 range indicative of serious psychological distress), whereas Māori and Pākehā/European peoples showed (relatively) lower levels of psychological distress (7.2% of Māori and 4.7% of Pākehā/Europeans). Older people, parents, and those who were in a committed relationship, employed, and more affluent people had lower levels of psychological distress compared to their respective counterparts. Nevertheless, the high level of psychological distress experienced by Asian peoples held when adjusting for these (and other) demographic characteristics. The need for further research and policywide interventions addressing the disparity in psychological health outcomes experienced by different ethnic groups in New Zealand is discussed.
Page 1. Identity construction and reconstruction: the role of socio-historical contexts in shapin... more Page 1. Identity construction and reconstruction: the role of socio-historical contexts in shaping Ma¯ori women's identity Carla Anne Houkamau* Department of Management and International Business, The University of Auckland ...
Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology, Jan 12, 2015
The aim of the current research is to test predictions derived from the rejection-identification ... more The aim of the current research is to test predictions derived from the rejection-identification model and research on collective action using cross-sectional (Study 1) and longitudinal (Study 2) methods. Specifically, an integration of these 2 literatures suggest that recognition of discrimination can have simultaneous positive relationships with well-being and engagement in collective action via the formation of a strong ingroup identity. We test these predictions in 2 studies using data from a large national probability sample of Māori (the indigenous peoples of New Zealand), collected as part of the New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study (Ns for Study 1 and 2 were 1,981 and 1,373, respectively). Consistent with the extant research, Study 1 showed that perceived discrimination was directly linked with decreased life satisfaction, but indirectly linked with increased life satisfaction through higher levels of ethnic identification. Perceived discrimination was also directly linked...
Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 2015
The aim of the current research is to test predictions derived from the rejection-identification ... more The aim of the current research is to test predictions derived from the rejection-identification model and research on collective action using cross-sectional (Study 1) and longitudinal (Study 2) methods. Specifically, an integration of these 2 literatures suggest that recognition of discrimination can have simultaneous positive relationships with well-being and engagement in collective action via the formation of a strong ingroup identity. We test these predictions in 2 studies using data from a large national probability sample of Māori (the indigenous peoples of New Zealand), collected as part of the New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study (Ns for Study 1 and 2 were 1,981 and 1,373, respectively). Consistent with the extant research, Study 1 showed that perceived discrimination was directly linked with decreased life satisfaction, but indirectly linked with increased life satisfaction through higher levels of ethnic identification. Perceived discrimination was also directly linked with increased support for Māori rights and indirectly linked with increased support for Māori rights through higher levels of ethnic identification. Study 2 replicated these findings using longitudinal data and identified multiple bidirectional paths between perceived discrimination, ethnic identity, well-being, and support for collective action. These findings replicate and extend the rejection-identification model in a novel cultural context by demonstrating via cross-sectional (Study 1) and longitudinal (Study 2) analyses that the recognition of discrimination can both motivate support for political rights and increase well-being by strengthening ingroup identity. (PsycINFO Database Record
We compared the self-reported subjective wellbeing of Māori and New Zealand (NZ) Europeans in two... more We compared the self-reported subjective wellbeing of Māori and New Zealand (NZ) Europeans in two NZ national postal samples. The first sample was collected in 2005 before the global financial crisis of 2007/2010. The second was collected in 2009 while the crisis was ongoing. Both samples contained large and arguably representative samples of the indigenous peoples of NZ, Māori (Ns = 289 and 964) as well as the nowmajority group, NZ Europeans (Ns = 2,769 and 4,073). NZ Europeans' scores on the Personal Wellbeing Index (PWI) were near-identical across the 2005 and 2009 samples. However, Māori, who were already lower than NZ Europeans on the PWI in 2005, showed a further decrease in 2009. We argue that this gap in wellbeing widened because material advantages experienced by NZ Europeans as a social group provides a systemic buffer which protects their personal wellbeing from the impact of economic privation. Māori, who had already experienced systemic disadvantage, were not privileged with this buffer, and thus, the effects of the 2007/2010 global financial crisis impacted their personal wellbeing to a greater extent.
Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology, Jan 16, 2015
Māori are the indigenous peoples of New Zealand. However, the term 'Māori' can refer to a... more Māori are the indigenous peoples of New Zealand. However, the term 'Māori' can refer to a wide range of people of varying ethnic compositions and cultural identity. We present a statistical model identifying 6 distinct types, or 'Māori Identity Signatures,' and estimate their proportion in the Māori population. The model is tested using a Latent Profile Analysis of a national probability sample of 686 Māori drawn from the New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study. We identify 6 distinct signatures: Traditional Essentialists (22.6%), Traditional Inclusives (16%), High Moderates (31.7%), Low Moderates (18.7%), Spiritually Orientated (4.1%), and Disassociated (6.9%). These distinct Identity Signatures predicted variation in deprivation, age, mixed-ethnic affiliation, and religion. This research presents the first formal statistical model assessing how people's identity as Māori is psychologically structured, documents the relative proportion of these different patterns...
Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology, 2013
We argue that there is a need for culture-specific measures of identity that delineate the factor... more We argue that there is a need for culture-specific measures of identity that delineate the factors that most make sense for specific cultural groups. One such measure, recently developed specifically for Māori peoples, is the Multi-Dimensional Model of Māori Identity and Cultural Engagement (MMM-ICE). Māori are the indigenous peoples of New Zealand. The MMM-ICE is a 6-factor measure that assesses the following aspects of identity and cultural engagement as Māori: (a) group membership evaluation, (b) socio-political consciousness, (c) cultural efficacy and active identity engagement, (d) spirituality, (e) interdependent self-concept, and (f) authenticity beliefs. This article examines the scale properties of the MMM-ICE using item response theory (IRT) analysis in a sample of 492 Māori. The MMM-ICE subscales showed reasonably even levels of measurement precision across the latent trait range. Analysis of age (cohort) effects further indicated that most aspects of Māori identification...
We update and validate the revised Multidimensional Model of Māori Identity and Cultural Engageme... more We update and validate the revised Multidimensional Model of Māori Identity and Cultural Engagement (MMM-ICE2) by including a seventh Perceived Appearance subscale. The MMM-ICE2 is designed to assess the subjective experiences, efficacy and evaluation of different facets of identity for Māori (the indigenous peoples of New Zealand). Confirmatory Factor Analysis of an online Māori community sample (N = 276) supported the revised seven-factor model assessing Group Membership Evaluation, Cultural Efficacy and Active Identity Engagement, Interdependent Self-Concept, Spirituality, Socio-Political Consciousness, Authenticity Beliefs, and the new Perceived Appearance subscale. The Perceived Appearance subscale was internally reliable and predicted unique variation in perceived discrimination and mixed ethnic affiliation as both Māori and European when adjusting for the other MMM-ICE2 subscale scores. The MMM-ICE2 is a public domain, quantitative self-report measure for use in statistical models to predict and understand the outcomes and protective function of different aspects of identity for Māori.
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Papers by Carla Houkamau