PUBLICATIONS by Saloni Bhatia
Of the goals and targets specified by the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, Target ... more Of the goals and targets specified by the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, Target 3, often referred to as "30 × 30," has garnered widespread attention globally. In this paper, we critique India's potential to meet this target. We find that with its vast network of ecosystems that are under some form of protection and through the recognition of other effective area-based conservation measures sites, India has the potential to meet the quantitative target of conserving and managing at least 30% of its area by 2030. However, the qualitative attributes of the target might be more difficult to realize owing to several challenges, such as inadequate landscape connectivity, insufficient representation of habitats in the current protected area model, and the exacerbation of socioeconomic vulnerabilities of resource-dependent communities. To achieve strategic, inclusive, and equitable conservation, we suggest a four-pronged approach involving landscape-level biodiversity conservation, socially just and collaborative safeguarding of biodiversity, and relevant policy (re)formulation, informed and underlain by long-term research and impact monitoring. Although we focus on India, the issues we discuss are of broader relevance, especially for countries across the Global South that are also likely to be significantly impacted by the implementation of the target.
Ecological Vulnerability by Katie Woolaston discusses the 'wicked' problem of human-wildlife conf... more Ecological Vulnerability by Katie Woolaston discusses the 'wicked' problem of human-wildlife conflict and the socio-legal context in which it plays out. It starts off with an introduction to the topic, delving into the semantics of conflict and coexistence whilst articulating the need to understand the complexities of human-wildlife relationships. The book describes in detail three case studies and ends with a concluding chapter that coherently connects all the dots. The author makes a case for the recognition and inclusion of ecological or eco-vulnerability in our analysis of conflict. They refer to literature on vulnerability theory and ecological feminism to identify three kinds of vulnerabilities-embodied (related to one's physical body), embedded (one's social, political, and culturally constructed place in society), and ecological (interconnected web of relationships between people and the environment). The author argues that the cumulative impact of human-wildlife conflict is more than the sum of its parts, but often, the resolution of such conflicts is carried out in a piecemeal fashion without adequate attention to interconnected vulnerabilities. The argument is furthered using examples of conflicts over dingo conservation and management, heritage tourism, and indigenous cultures in K'gari island in Australia, the socio-political and legal/policy dimensions of conflicts over elephants in northern Botswana, and the interrelatedness of wildlife trade, zoonotic diseases, and pandemics such as COVID-19. The book is an ideal reference for environmental lawyers, conservation researchers ... (especially students), practitioners, and policy makers looking to delve deeper into the nuances of environmental jurisprudence vis-à-vis human-wildlife conflict. The language is accessible, and the arguments are welldeveloped with an extensive review of peer-reviewed literature. The author has articulated the theory of eco-vulnerability in a stepwise and concise manner, without excessive repetition of the predominant ideas. The case studies have been researched thoroughly and contain valuable observations that drive home the idea that our vulnerabilities are closely tied to that of the environment and vice-versa. Woolaston, in effect, demonstrates that our notion of individual and institutional autonomy is a fallacy as well as the driver of conflict and its governance. Each case study is an impressive attempt at highlighting the various dimensions, tangible and hidden, that interact with each other to produce conflicts. The conclusion carefully links them back to the theory of eco-vulnerability. Some of the
Frontiers in Conservation Science
Editorial: Coexistence between conservation and food security in social-ecological systems
Frontiers in Conservation Science, 2021
Frontiers in Environmental Science, 2021
People's views and values for wild animals are often a result of their experiences and traditiona... more People's views and values for wild animals are often a result of their experiences and traditional knowledge. Local folklore represents a resource that can enable an understanding of the nature of human-wildlife interactions, especially the underlying cultural values. Using archival searches and semi-structured interviews, we collected narratives about the ibex (Capra sibirica) (n 69), and its predators, the wolf (Canis lupus) (n 52) and the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) (n 43), in Ladakh, India. We compared these stories to those of a mythical carnivore called seng ge or snow lion (n 19), frequently referenced in local Tibetan Buddhist folklore and believed to share many of the traits commonly associated with snow leopards (except for livestock depredation). We then categorized the values along social-cultural, ecological and psychological dimensions. We found that the ibex was predominantly associated with utilitarianism and positive symbolism. Both snow leopard and wolf narratives referenced negative affective and negative symbolic values, though more frequently in the case of wolves. Snow leopard narratives largely focused on utilitarian and ecologistic values. In contrast, snow lion narratives were mostly associated with positive symbolism. Our results suggest that especially for snow leopards and wolves, any potentially positive symbolic associations appeared to be overwhelmed by negative sentiments because of their tendency to prey on livestock, unlike in the case of the snow lion. Since these values reflect people's real and multifarious interactions with wildlife, we recommend paying greater attention to understanding the overlaps between natural and cultural heritage conservation to facilitate human-wildlife coexistence.
Conservation Biology, 2020
While coexistence with wildlife is a key goal of conservation, little is known about it or how to... more While coexistence with wildlife is a key goal of conservation, little is known about it or how to study it. By coexistence we mean a sustainable though dynamic state in which humans and wildlife coadapt to sharing landscapes, where human interactions with wildlife are effectively governed to ensure wildlife populations persist in socially legitimate ways that ensure tolerable risk levels. Problems that arise from current conflict‐oriented framing of human‐wildlife interactions include reinforcing a human‐nature dichotomy as fundamentally oppositional, suggesting coexistence requires the absence of conflict, and skewing research and management toward direct negative impacts over indirect impacts and positive aspects of living with wildlife. Human behavior toward wildlife is framed as rational calculus of costs and benefits, sidelining emotional and cultural dimensions of these interactions. Coexistence is less studied due to unfamiliarity with relevant methodologies, including qualitative methods, self‐reflexivity and ethical rigor, and constraints on funding and time. These challenges are illustrated with examples from fieldwork in India and Africa. We recommend a basic approach to case studies aimed at expanding the scope of inquiries into human‐wildlife relations beyond studies of rational behavior and quantification of costs and benefits of wildlife to humans.
Animal Conservation, 2020
Research on human–wildlife interactions has largely focused on the magnitude of
wildlife-caused d... more Research on human–wildlife interactions has largely focused on the magnitude of
wildlife-caused damage, and the patterns and correlates of human attitudes and
behaviors. We assessed the role of five pathways through which various correlates
potentially influence human responses toward wild animals, namely, value orientation,
social interactions (i.e. social cohesion and support), dependence on resources
such as agriculture and livestock, risk perception and nature of interaction with the
wild animal. We specifically evaluated their influence on people’s responses toward
two large carnivores, the snow leopard Panthera uncia and the wolf Canis lupus
in an agropastoral landscape in the Indian Trans-Himalaya. We found that the nature
of the interaction (location, impact and length of time since an encounter or
depredation event), and risk perception (cognitive and affective evaluation of the
threat posed by the animal) had a significant influence on attitudes and behaviors
toward the snow leopard. For wolves, risk perception and social interactions (the
relationship of people with local institutions and inter-community dynamics) were
significant. Our findings underscore the importance of interventions that reduce
people’s threat perceptions from carnivores, improve their connection with nature
and strengthen the conservation capacity of local institutions especially in the context
of wolves.
Oyrx, 2019
Humans have lived alongside and interacted with wild animals throughout evolutionary history. Eve... more Humans have lived alongside and interacted with wild animals throughout evolutionary history. Even though wild animals can damage property, or injure humans and domesticated animals, not all interactions between humans and wildlife are negative. Yet, research has tended to focus disproportionately on negative interactions leading to negative outcomes, labelling this human–wildlife conflict. Studies have identified several factors, ranging from gender, religion, socio-economics and literacy, which influence people's responses to wildlife. We used the ISI Web of Knowledge database to assess quantitatively how human–wildlife interactions are framed in the scientific literature and to understand the hypotheses that have been invoked to explain these. We found that the predominant focus of research was on human–wildlife conflict (71%), with little coverage of coexistence (2%) or neutral interactions (8%). We suggest that such a framing is problematic as it can lead to biases in conservation planning by failing to consider the nuances of people's relationships with wildlife and the opportunities that exist for conservation. We propose a typology of human responses to wildlife impacts, ranging from negative to positive, to help moderate the disproportionate focus on conflict. We suggest that standardizing terminology and considering interactions beyond those that are negative can lead to a more nuanced understanding of human–wildlife relations and help promote greater coexistence between people and wildlife. We also list the various influential factors that are reported to shape human–wildlife interactions and, to generate further hypotheses and research, classify them into 55 proximate (correlates) and five ultimate (mechanisms) factors.
Conflicts between people over wildlife are widespread and damaging to both the wildlife and peopl... more Conflicts between people over wildlife are widespread and damaging to both the wildlife and people involved. Such issues are often termed human–wildlife conflicts. We argue that this term is misleading and may exacerbate the problems and hinder resolution. A review of 100 recent articles on human–wildlife conflicts reveals that 97 were between conservation and other human activities, particularly those associated with livelihoods. We suggest that we should distinguish between human–wildlife impacts and human–human conflicts and be explicit about the different interests involved in conflict. Those representing conservation interests should not only seek technical solutions to deal with the impacts but also consider their role and objectives, and focus on strategies likely to deliver long-term solutions for the benefit of biodiversity and the people involved.
Evidence suggests that religion is an important driver of peoples’
attitudes toward nature, but t... more Evidence suggests that religion is an important driver of peoples’
attitudes toward nature, but the link between religion and carnivore
conservation is poorly understood. We examined peoples’ attitudes
in Buddhist (n = 83) and Muslim communities (n = 111) toward snow
leopards (Panthera uncia) and wolves (Canis lupus) in Ladakh, India.
We found that the effect of religion on attitudes was statistically
nonsignificant, and was tempered by gender, education, and awareness
of wildlife laws. Even though religion by itself was not an
indication of an individual’s attitude toward large carnivores, the
extent to which he/she practiced it (i.e., religiosity) had a positive
correlation with pro-carnivore attitudes in the case of Buddhist but
not Muslim communities. Our findings indicate that it may be useful
to integrate locally relevant religious philosophies into conservation
practice. However, the emphasis of conservation messaging should
vary, stressing environmental stewardship in the case of Islam, and
human–wildlife interdependence in the case of Buddhism.
Attempts to minimize the effects of human-wildlife conflict (HWC) on conservation goals require a... more Attempts to minimize the effects of human-wildlife conflict (HWC) on conservation goals require an understanding of the mechanisms by which such conflicts are caused and sustained. This necessitates looking beyond the natural sciences to the human dimensions of wildlife management. Public dissemination of information regarding HWC occurs largely through the mass media. We conducted a content analysis of print media articles on human-leopard conflict in Mumbai, India. We sought to understand the framing of HWC and the changes in media coverage over a 10-year period (2001-2011) during which a large number of attacks on people prior to 2005 were followed by a program of trapping and relocation. After 2005, when there was a decrease in the level of conflict, the tone of English-language media reports changed. The perpetrator framing was over 5 times more likely before 2005, whereas a neutral framing was twice as likely after 2005. English-language and non-English-language print media differed significantly in their framing of HWC and in the kinds of solutions advocated. Our results also suggest the print mass media in Mumbai could be an influential conduit for content that diminishes HWC. These media outlets seem attentive to human-leopard conflict, capable of correcting erroneous perceptions and facilitating mitigation and effective management. We believe better contact and mutual understanding between conservation professionals and the mass media could be an important component of managing HWC. We further suggest that in such interactions conservation professionals need to be aware of cultural and linguistic differences in reporting within the country.
The threat posed by large carnivores to livestock and humans makes peaceful coexistence between
t... more The threat posed by large carnivores to livestock and humans makes peaceful coexistence between
them difficult. Effective implementation of conservation laws and policies depends on the attitudes of local
residents toward the target species. There are many known correlates of human attitudes toward carnivores,
but they have only been assessed at the scale of the individual. Because human societies are organized hierarchically,
attitudes are presumably influenced by different factors at different scales of social organization, but
this scale dependence has not been examined.We used structured interview surveys to quantitatively assess the
attitudes of a Buddhist pastoral community toward snow leopards (Panthera uncia) and wolves (Canis lupus).
We interviewed 381 individuals from 24 villages within 6 study sites across the high-elevation Spiti Valley in
the Indian Trans-Himalaya. We gathered information on key explanatory variables that together captured
variation in individual and village-level socioeconomic factors.We used hierarchical linear models to examine
how the effect of these factors on human attitudes changed with the scale of analysis from the individual to
the community. Factors significant at the individual level were gender, education, and age of the respondent
(for wolves and snow leopards), number of income sources in the family (wolves), agricultural production,
and large-bodied livestock holdings (snow leopards). At the community level, the significant factors included
the number of smaller-bodied herded livestock killed by wolves and mean agricultural production (wolves)
and village size and large livestock holdings (snow leopards). Our results show that scaling up from the
individual to higher levels of social organization can highlight important factors that influence attitudes of
people toward wildlife and toward formal conservation efforts in general. Such scale-specific information can
help managers apply conservation measures at appropriate scales. Our results reiterate the need for conflict
management programs to be multipronged.
Tropical Ecology
We studied the role of environmental factors driving species distributions, community structure, ... more We studied the role of environmental factors driving species distributions, community structure, and ecosystem properties in an endangered montane grassland ecosystem in the Nilgiris, Western Ghats. We examined plant composition, ecosystem properties and environmental factors in one of the largest grassland sites in the Nilgiris. Ordination analysis showed that environmental gradients, mainly slope and aspect, controlled the distribution of the dominant plants. Some of the abundant species showed mutually exclusive distributional patterns along gradients, and some species exhibited distinct association with other species suggesting similar environmental tolerances. Classification analysis identified four community types, but ordination revealed that these communities formed a continuum along environmental gradients. Slope and soil depth strongly influenced aboveground biomass while species composition was influenced by the aspect. This study provides baseline data on grassland communities in the Nilgiris, and the results suggest that restoration activities should factor in environmental preferences of the plants as well as natural species associations.
Papers by Saloni Bhatia
Conservation Biology, 2020
Although coexistence with wildlife is a key goal of conservation, little is known about it or how... more Although coexistence with wildlife is a key goal of conservation, little is known about it or how to study it. By coexistence we mean a sustainable though dynamic state in which humans and wildlife coadapt to sharing landscapes, where human interactions with wildlife are effectively governed to ensure wildlife populations persist in socially legitimate ways that ensure tolerable risk levels. Problems that arise from current conflict‐oriented framing of human–wildlife interactions include reinforcing a human–nature dichotomy as fundamentally oppositional, suggesting coexistence requires the absence of conflict, and skewing research and management toward direct negative impacts over indirect impacts and positive aspects of living with wildlife. Human behavior toward wildlife is framed as rational calculus of costs and benefits, sidelining emotional and cultural dimensions of these interactions. Coexistence is less studied due to unfamiliarity with relevant methodologies, including qualitative methods, self‐reflexivity and ethical rigor, and constraints on funding and time. These challenges are illustrated with examples from fieldwork in India and Africa. We recommend a basic approach to case studies aimed at expanding the scope of inquiries into human–wildlife relations beyond studies of rational behavior and quantification of costs and benefits of wildlife to humans.
Uploads
PUBLICATIONS by Saloni Bhatia
wildlife-caused damage, and the patterns and correlates of human attitudes and
behaviors. We assessed the role of five pathways through which various correlates
potentially influence human responses toward wild animals, namely, value orientation,
social interactions (i.e. social cohesion and support), dependence on resources
such as agriculture and livestock, risk perception and nature of interaction with the
wild animal. We specifically evaluated their influence on people’s responses toward
two large carnivores, the snow leopard Panthera uncia and the wolf Canis lupus
in an agropastoral landscape in the Indian Trans-Himalaya. We found that the nature
of the interaction (location, impact and length of time since an encounter or
depredation event), and risk perception (cognitive and affective evaluation of the
threat posed by the animal) had a significant influence on attitudes and behaviors
toward the snow leopard. For wolves, risk perception and social interactions (the
relationship of people with local institutions and inter-community dynamics) were
significant. Our findings underscore the importance of interventions that reduce
people’s threat perceptions from carnivores, improve their connection with nature
and strengthen the conservation capacity of local institutions especially in the context
of wolves.
attitudes toward nature, but the link between religion and carnivore
conservation is poorly understood. We examined peoples’ attitudes
in Buddhist (n = 83) and Muslim communities (n = 111) toward snow
leopards (Panthera uncia) and wolves (Canis lupus) in Ladakh, India.
We found that the effect of religion on attitudes was statistically
nonsignificant, and was tempered by gender, education, and awareness
of wildlife laws. Even though religion by itself was not an
indication of an individual’s attitude toward large carnivores, the
extent to which he/she practiced it (i.e., religiosity) had a positive
correlation with pro-carnivore attitudes in the case of Buddhist but
not Muslim communities. Our findings indicate that it may be useful
to integrate locally relevant religious philosophies into conservation
practice. However, the emphasis of conservation messaging should
vary, stressing environmental stewardship in the case of Islam, and
human–wildlife interdependence in the case of Buddhism.
them difficult. Effective implementation of conservation laws and policies depends on the attitudes of local
residents toward the target species. There are many known correlates of human attitudes toward carnivores,
but they have only been assessed at the scale of the individual. Because human societies are organized hierarchically,
attitudes are presumably influenced by different factors at different scales of social organization, but
this scale dependence has not been examined.We used structured interview surveys to quantitatively assess the
attitudes of a Buddhist pastoral community toward snow leopards (Panthera uncia) and wolves (Canis lupus).
We interviewed 381 individuals from 24 villages within 6 study sites across the high-elevation Spiti Valley in
the Indian Trans-Himalaya. We gathered information on key explanatory variables that together captured
variation in individual and village-level socioeconomic factors.We used hierarchical linear models to examine
how the effect of these factors on human attitudes changed with the scale of analysis from the individual to
the community. Factors significant at the individual level were gender, education, and age of the respondent
(for wolves and snow leopards), number of income sources in the family (wolves), agricultural production,
and large-bodied livestock holdings (snow leopards). At the community level, the significant factors included
the number of smaller-bodied herded livestock killed by wolves and mean agricultural production (wolves)
and village size and large livestock holdings (snow leopards). Our results show that scaling up from the
individual to higher levels of social organization can highlight important factors that influence attitudes of
people toward wildlife and toward formal conservation efforts in general. Such scale-specific information can
help managers apply conservation measures at appropriate scales. Our results reiterate the need for conflict
management programs to be multipronged.
Papers by Saloni Bhatia
wildlife-caused damage, and the patterns and correlates of human attitudes and
behaviors. We assessed the role of five pathways through which various correlates
potentially influence human responses toward wild animals, namely, value orientation,
social interactions (i.e. social cohesion and support), dependence on resources
such as agriculture and livestock, risk perception and nature of interaction with the
wild animal. We specifically evaluated their influence on people’s responses toward
two large carnivores, the snow leopard Panthera uncia and the wolf Canis lupus
in an agropastoral landscape in the Indian Trans-Himalaya. We found that the nature
of the interaction (location, impact and length of time since an encounter or
depredation event), and risk perception (cognitive and affective evaluation of the
threat posed by the animal) had a significant influence on attitudes and behaviors
toward the snow leopard. For wolves, risk perception and social interactions (the
relationship of people with local institutions and inter-community dynamics) were
significant. Our findings underscore the importance of interventions that reduce
people’s threat perceptions from carnivores, improve their connection with nature
and strengthen the conservation capacity of local institutions especially in the context
of wolves.
attitudes toward nature, but the link between religion and carnivore
conservation is poorly understood. We examined peoples’ attitudes
in Buddhist (n = 83) and Muslim communities (n = 111) toward snow
leopards (Panthera uncia) and wolves (Canis lupus) in Ladakh, India.
We found that the effect of religion on attitudes was statistically
nonsignificant, and was tempered by gender, education, and awareness
of wildlife laws. Even though religion by itself was not an
indication of an individual’s attitude toward large carnivores, the
extent to which he/she practiced it (i.e., religiosity) had a positive
correlation with pro-carnivore attitudes in the case of Buddhist but
not Muslim communities. Our findings indicate that it may be useful
to integrate locally relevant religious philosophies into conservation
practice. However, the emphasis of conservation messaging should
vary, stressing environmental stewardship in the case of Islam, and
human–wildlife interdependence in the case of Buddhism.
them difficult. Effective implementation of conservation laws and policies depends on the attitudes of local
residents toward the target species. There are many known correlates of human attitudes toward carnivores,
but they have only been assessed at the scale of the individual. Because human societies are organized hierarchically,
attitudes are presumably influenced by different factors at different scales of social organization, but
this scale dependence has not been examined.We used structured interview surveys to quantitatively assess the
attitudes of a Buddhist pastoral community toward snow leopards (Panthera uncia) and wolves (Canis lupus).
We interviewed 381 individuals from 24 villages within 6 study sites across the high-elevation Spiti Valley in
the Indian Trans-Himalaya. We gathered information on key explanatory variables that together captured
variation in individual and village-level socioeconomic factors.We used hierarchical linear models to examine
how the effect of these factors on human attitudes changed with the scale of analysis from the individual to
the community. Factors significant at the individual level were gender, education, and age of the respondent
(for wolves and snow leopards), number of income sources in the family (wolves), agricultural production,
and large-bodied livestock holdings (snow leopards). At the community level, the significant factors included
the number of smaller-bodied herded livestock killed by wolves and mean agricultural production (wolves)
and village size and large livestock holdings (snow leopards). Our results show that scaling up from the
individual to higher levels of social organization can highlight important factors that influence attitudes of
people toward wildlife and toward formal conservation efforts in general. Such scale-specific information can
help managers apply conservation measures at appropriate scales. Our results reiterate the need for conflict
management programs to be multipronged.