Journal papers by Marjan Temovski
Near Prilep, during speleological research from 2005 until 2007, we researched five caves, from w... more Near Prilep, during speleological research from 2005 until 2007, we researched five caves, from which one in particular – cave Ramnishte is interesting, because it is the first example of clastokarst cave in Republic of Macedonia. Ramnishte is located between Krstec and Orevoec villages, on the western side of Kozjak Mountain (1745m), part of the Babuna massif. Although the cave was known to the local population for a long time, and also visited by the local mountaineers from the beginning of the 20th century, Ramnishte is for the first time in literature mentioned by Jovan Trifonovski, who just spoke that ”there is a cave in the place cold Ramnishte, near Krstec”. Stanko Stankoski, in his Ph.D. dissertation writing about the geomorphology of Pelagonian Basin writes the first scientific text about Ramnishte. Cave Ramnishte is formed in carbonate conglomerates, deposited by the Pelagonian Neogene Lake, probably in the IV cycle of the Pelagonian Basin evolution, during Pliocene. Ramni...
Овој труд има за цел да и го претстави на македонската карстологија концептот на хипогена спелеог... more Овој труд има за цел да и го претстави на македонската карстологија концептот на хипогена спелеогенеза, а воедно и да даде некои прелиминарни податоци за појавата на хипоген карст во Република Македонија. Во првиот дел на трудот е прикажан ажуриран краток преглед на дефиниции, концепти, процеси и механизми поврзани со хипогената карстификација, додека во вториот дел се презентирани некои резултати за распространетоста и карактеристиките на хипогениот карст во Република Македонија. Главен фокус е даден на хипогениот карст во Мариово, каде во последно време се вршени подетални проучувања на хипогената спелеогенеза, презентирајќи ги хипогените појави кои тука се резултат на хидротермална спелеогенеза поради зголемен геотермален градиент поврзан со вулканизмот на Кожуф/Козјак, како и одредени комбинации со други процеси (сулфурична спелеогенеза, фантомска спелеогенеза) како резултат на локални литолошки и геолошки прилики. Појава на хипоген карст е дискутирана и на примерот на Катлановска Бања и бања Бањиште, каде хипогената спелеогенеза е исто така поврзана со хидротермална корозија.
International Journal of Speleology, 2013
"Извршена е дигитализација на површинската распространетост на карстните карпи (варовници; мермер... more "Извршена е дигитализација на површинската распространетост на карстните карпи (варовници; мермери; бигорливи варовници, бигори и травертин; карбонатни шкрилци и мермери; гипс и анхидрит) користејќи ја основната
геолошка карта на СФРЈ во размер 1:100 000 (листовите кои се однесуваат на Македонија), при што се дигитализирани вкупно 1443 полигони, со вкупна планарна површина од 3078,46 km2, што претставува 11,97 % од вкупната површина на Р.Македонија (25713 km2). Врз основа на дигитализираните податоци беа пресметани површините на карстните карпи според типот и староста, при што најголемиот дел се мермери со 51,05 %, додека според староста најзастапени се тријаските (варовници и доломити) со 37 %. Изготвени се и две карти на површинска распространетост на карстните карпи: според типот на карпите и според староста на карпите, а воедно извршена е и пресметка на застапеноста на карстните карпи по општини, при што како општина со најголема површина на карстни карпи се издвојува општината Македонски Брод со површина од 531,72 km2. Векторските податоци и дигиталните карти ќе послужат како основа за понатамошни проучувања на карстот во Македонија, лесно ќе може да се
комбинираат со останати податоци (раседи, пештери, карстни извори, врнежи, морфометриски анализи на теренот и др.), а ќе послужат и за што попрецизно дефинирање и систематизација на карстните терени во Македонија."
"Provalata Cave (Republic of Macedonia) is a small but remarkable hypogenic cave, developed
in C... more "Provalata Cave (Republic of Macedonia) is a small but remarkable hypogenic cave, developed
in Cambrian marbles by successive thermal carbonic and sulfuric acid speleogenesis. The
cave has a thick partly corroded calcite crust, abundant gypsum deposits, with cupolas, ceiling
and wall channels, feeders and replacement pockets as some of the most characteristic
morphological features. Distribution of morphology and deposits suggest a hypogenic origin
in two distinct speleogenetic phases: the first by thermal CO2 rich waters, the second by
sulfuric acid dissolution, which were separated by complete infilling of cave passages with
pyroclastic-derived clays. In the first phase of speleogenesis, cave passages were formed by
dissolution along fractures due to cooling of rising carbonated thermal waters. These phreatic
morphologies were later covered with a thick calcite crust deposited in a shallow phreatic
environment. In Early Pleistocene the cave was completely filled with clays due to deposition
of pyroclastic rocks in a lacustrine environment in the nearby Mariovo Basin. Mariovo Lake
sediments were later incised by the Buturica River, which cut down into Cambrian marbles,
creating its superimposed valley. Incision lowered the water table and allowed removal of the
clay deposits in Provalata Cave. The second phase of speleogenesis started after introduction
of H2S associated with rising thermal waters. Oxidation produced sulfuric acid, which rapidly
dissolved first calcite crust, then marble host rock. Condensation-corrosion by sulfuric vapors
replaced carbonate rock with gypsum producing replacement pockets as well as second
generation of pockets and cupolas. The contact of sulfuric acid with the clay deposits formed
alunite, jarosite, and natroalunite. 40Ar/39Ar dating gave maximum ages of 1.6 Ma (alunite)
and 1.46 Ma (jarosite) for this last stage of speleogenesis, thus making it the second 40Ar/39Ar
dating of a sulfuric cave in Europe (after Kraushöhle in Austria), and the first dated cave in
the Republic of Macedonia."
Conference papers & presentations by Marjan Temovski
This paper aims to summarize the known information about ice caves in Macedonia. At present this ... more This paper aims to summarize the known information about ice caves in Macedonia. At present this comprises only basic data such as their location and extent of ice deposits within. As no scientific studies have been made on ice caves in Macedonia, in order to give the widest possible base for future studies, this database considers ice caves in their broadest definition, i.e. caves with perennial (ice and/or snow) and/or seasonal ice deposits. No national cave register exist in Macedonia, so the data is collected from reports (published or not) of cave explorations carried by Macedonian, Slovene and Slovak cavers in the last 35 years. Ice caves (as defined here) are found only in two mountain areas: Jakupica Mountain Massif (in the central parts of Macedonia) and Krčin Mountain (along the western border). In total, 25 caves with perennial ice/snow or seasonal ice deposits have been registered, located at elevations between 991 m and 2340 m, and latitudes between N 41.59° (41° 35') and N 41.87° (41° 52'). On the Jakupica Mountain Massif, 16 ice caves have been registered, 14 with perennial deposits (ice and/or snow) and two with seasonal ice deposits. The most important ones are Solunska Glava 5, Lednik, Slovačka Jama and Solunska Jama. All of them are deep caves (Slovačka Jama being the deepest explored cave in Macedonia;-610 m), with perennial ice deposits registered down to depth of ~200 m (Slovačka Jama and Lednik), ~270 m (Solunska Jama) and 370 m (Solunska Glava 5). They have snow, firn and ice deposits (ice speleothems and ice blocks), with ice formed from both infiltrating water and firn accumulation. Solunska Glava 5 is the most impressive one, having huge ice cone (ice glacier), starting at depth of ~200 m (at the base of the entrance shaft), down to the bottom of the great hall at depth of 370 m. It has a surface area of ~15000 m 2 , with an unknown thickness, which is at least 3-4 m at the foothill, where also few meters high ice stalagmites can be found, as well as an ice lake. Nine caves with perennial snow deposits have been registered also on Krčin Mountain, during a Slovene caving expedition in 1995. All of them are vertical caves (pits) explored down to depth of 15 to 59 m, with explored passages typically (except in two caves) ending with snow plugs. Based on their size (length/depth) and the distribution of ice/snow deposits within, all of the registered ice caves can be grouped into four categories: 1-Deep caves with large ice/snow deposits and explored passages below/beside the ice/snow deposits (n=4); 2-Caves (<60 m deep) with explored passages ending in snow/ice plugs (n=13); 3-Smaller caves with small snow/ice deposits and explored passages below/beside the snow/ice deposits (n=6); 4-Smaller caves with seasonal ice deposits (n=2). The real number of ice caves in Macedonia can be expected to be higher, considering some not explored, snow plugged, large entrance pits on Jakupica, as well as the poorly known karst terrains in the western high mountain areas of Macedonia.
Со терминот карст се означува терен формиран врз силно растворливи и испукани карпи (пр. варовниц... more Со терминот карст се означува терен формиран врз силно растворливи и испукани карпи (пр. варовници, мермери), што резултира со развој на посебни релјефни форми (карстни релјефни форми, пр.: карстни полиња, вртачи, пештери и др.) и подземна (карстна) хидрографија. Самиот збор „карст“ (кarst) претставува германизирана форма на името на платото Крас во Словенија (италијански Carso), што доаѓа од прединдоевропскиот збор kar, што значи камен/карпа (каменест/карпест терен). Словенечката варијанта е добиена со метатеза на ликвидите, настаната најдоцна до почетокот на 9 век, со што од претсловенечката форма „Kars(u)“ е добиена модерната форма „Kras“. На карстните терени во Република Македонија доста често се среќава топонимот „Краста“, збор кој според толковниот речник на македонскиот јазик означува „голо, камено место“. Самото значење на зборот, како и неговата поврзаност со карстните терени во Република Македонија не води кон разгледување на зборот краста како можен македонски назив за карст. Како прилог кон оваа хипотеза, овој труд ја анализира просторната распространетост на топонимот Краста на топографските карти во размер од 1:25000, како и неговата корелација со распространетоста на карстните терени во Република Македонија.
Geomorphometry 2015, Jun 20, 2015
Karst terrains in the Republic of Macedoniacover 12 % of its territory, generally as a number of ... more Karst terrains in the Republic of Macedoniacover 12 % of its territory, generally as a number of separate karst areas with various sizes, most of which are located in the western and central parts of the country. Karst rocks are represented mostly by Triassic limestones and Precambrian marbles, with also parts composed of Paleozoic marbles and carbonate schists, Jurassic and Cretaceous limestones, Pleistocene tufa, tufaceous limestones and travertines and also Cretaceous gypsum and anhydrite. General morphometric characteristics of the karst surface were analyzed, with hypsometry, slope inclination and type, and aspect analyzed for both total karst surface and different karst rocks. Average elevation of karst terrains is 1100.4 m, reflective of the extension of karst terrains generally in mountainous regions, with limestone and marble having higher average elevations. As youngest rocks, tufaceous limestones, tufa & travertines are located mainly at lower elevations. Average slope (20.6°) is also significantly higher than mean slope of the entire country (15.4°), reflecting generally deeply incised fluvio-karstic landscapes and well preserved tectonic structures within the karst surface. Aspect analysis of karst surface shows generally even distribution between classes. Regarding slope type, large areas have linear downhill slope, especially in regards to the plan curvature. Beside that, convex terrains prevail with 28.9% for plan and 38.6% for profile curvature (with positive values for both). These results represent first attempt to analyze the general morphometric characteristics of the karst surface in Republic Macedonia. The outcome reveals certain specific characteristic of the karst surface, especially between different karst lithologies.
Karst terrains have wide environmental significance, yielding large groundwater resources; provid... more Karst terrains have wide environmental significance, yielding large groundwater resources; providing habitats to troglobitic ecosystems; conserving datable records of paleobiota, paleoenvironmental conditions and landscape evolution; hosting oil and natural gas resources, as well as many ore and economic deposits. Karst terrains and caves are also an important touristic resource due to their scenic, cultural and scientific value. On the other hand karst terrains are highly vulnerable to overuse and misuse, and having largely underground manifestation, this impact is often not obvious until it is already advanced, and thus difficult to restore. In Macedonia, karst terrains occupy 12 % of its territory, with more than 400 caves documented, some of which have great geological, geomorphological, hydrogeological, biological, paleontological and archaeological importance. Due to its importance, continuous scientific research, proper presentation and protection of karst resources in Macedo...
Proceedings of the International Scientific Symposium "Problems and perspectives of hilly-mountain areas"
"This paper will present the general characteristics of karst in Mariovo, a hilly mountainous are... more "This paper will present the general characteristics of karst in Mariovo, a hilly mountainous area in the southern part of Republic of Macedonia, its extension, surface morphology as well as speleogenesis and karst waters. Previous results will be combined with new research on surface karst, caves and karst waters in this area. Karst rocks present 16% of Mariovo area, where due to complex geological and geomorphological characteristic some specific karst features developed. Number of caves has been explored in the past few years, most of which have been studied, giving new insight in to the general karst development. Also new karst springs were documented, such as Gugjakovski Izvori (the largest spring along the river course of Crna Reka), which give further insight to the karst hydrogeology of the area. The importance of karst areas in Mariovo is mostly due to a number of specific karst features, mostly connected to thermal speleogenesis, such as Provalata Cave where sulfuric acid was involved in its formation. This cave is also the first dated cave in Macedonia, and only the second 40Ar/39Ar dated sulfuric acid cave in Europe. Mariovo, especially the eastern part (where karst is found) is now mostly depopulated area, leaving karst to have no immediate impact on people today, although some agriculture is still present. Nevertheless, projected future dam Galište is covering karst areas along Crna Reka valley, and proper understanding of karst in this area will be important for future management of this artificial reservoir. Also, given the scarce water resources in Mariovo, large springs such as Gugjakovski Izvori are an important resource."
Extension of karst rock outcrops in Macedonia is given by Andonovski (1981) as 2440 km2, which is... more Extension of karst rock outcrops in Macedonia is given by Andonovski (1981) as 2440 km2, which is 9.5% of Macedonia’s total area, or by Kolčakovski & Boškovska (2007) as 2724 km2 (10.6%). This data is usually accompanied with a large scale map of general extension of karst rock outcrops (Kolčakovski, 2001), which is highly generalized and inaccurate. Different map, but with similar quality is also given by Kekić (1980). Both of the values about karst rock outcrops in Macedonia are based upon the basic geological map of Macedonia, published in 1 : 100 000 scale. The low precision of the karst rock extension maps, demanded creation of a new accurate digital map and data using GIS methods. We present the methodology used to produce the data and the map, as well as the results which can be easily combined with other data (such as faults, caves, karst springs etc.) and can serve as a base for further analyses of karst terrains in Macedonia.
Karsi Podot is a small active thermal cave, located slightly above the river bed of Crna Reka in ... more Karsi Podot is a small active thermal cave, located slightly above the river bed of Crna Reka in Republic of Macedonia. The cave is mostly developed in Precambrian dolomitic marbles, and has an active low-temperature thermal water flow. The passages end abruptly in an in-situ dolomitic sediment residue which has preserved the original bedding. The cave is a result of ghost-rock weathering by slowly moving thermal waters, with later backflooding of Crna Reka removing residue and producing phantom cave passages. In this paper we will present the morphology and sediments of the cave, and will discuss the possible mechanism of cave development.
The history of Speleology in Macedonia begins later comparing the other parts of the Balkan Penin... more The history of Speleology in Macedonia begins later comparing the other parts of the Balkan Peninsula. First speleological scientific information is about the cave fauna in Meckina Dupka Cave (Jeannel, 1924). However, the publishing of the results about Dona Duka Cave by P.S. Jovanovic (1925) is regarded as beginning of the speleological research in Macedonia. In the after war period, the foundations of the Macedonian Speleology are set, lead by their most significant representative, Dusan Manakovik. In 1958 the Speleological Society of Macedonia (SSM) is founded. Later, the Speleological Society “Peoni” is founded, and also the Commission of Speleology at the Mountaineering Association (CSMA). After the disintegration of SFRJ, the activities of SSM fade out, and the only carrier of the organized speleological activity is the CSMA, which outgrows into Macedonian Speleological Association, and today Macedonian Speleological Federation (MSF). Main carrier of the speleological research...
Poreche Basin is one of the least populated areas in Republic of Macedonia, but also one of the r... more Poreche Basin is one of the least populated areas in Republic of Macedonia, but also one of the richest with underground karst forms. The location of the underground karst forms near populated places, their accessibility, and the human itself, are the primary factors that impact the degradation of the Poreche Basin’s underground karst forms. Gorna Slatinska Cave, located in Slatina Village is protected by law as Monument of nature, but there has also been recorded a destruction.
Books by Marjan Temovski
This thesis addresses karst development in a terrain characterized by a highly complex geological... more This thesis addresses karst development in a terrain characterized by a highly complex geological and geomorphological evolution. It tackles the extent and complexity of both epigenic and hypogenic karst development, based on morphological analyses of caves, combined with analyses and datations of cave sediments and their correlation to regional geological and geomorphological evolution.
Hypogenic karst registered is mainly the result of hydrothermal speleogenesis due to increased geothermal gradient in connection with nearby Pliocene-Pleistocene volcanic centers, with occurrence of sulfuric acid speleogenesis and ghost-rock weathering due to local geological or lithological control. Epigenic speleogenesis is strongly controlled by base level oscillations, with also examples of deep phreatic (now fossil) caves connected to regional base level rise, and per-ascensum speleogenesis.
Another important finding is the constraining of the timing of Mariovo Lake draining in the Pleistocene, an important event in order to understand the geomorphological evolution in Macedonia, as it led to the onset of fluvial development and incision of valleys, shaping most of the present morphology.
Papers by Marjan Temovski
The relationship between the atmospheric concentration of cosmogenic isotopes, the change of sola... more The relationship between the atmospheric concentration of cosmogenic isotopes, the change of solar activity and hence secondary neutron flux has already been proven. The temporal atmospheric variation of the most studied cosmogenic isotopes shows a significant anti-correlation with solar cycles. However, since artificial tritium input to the atmosphere due to nuclear-weapon tests masked the expected variations of tritium production rate by three orders of magnitude, the natural variation of tritium in meteoric precipitation has not previously been detected. For the first time, we provide clear evidence of the positive correlation between the tritium concentration of meteoric precipitation and neutron flux modulated by solar magnetic activity. We found trends in tritium time series for numerous locations worldwide which are similar to the variation of secondary neutron flux and sun spot numbers. This variability appears to have similar periodicities to that of solar cycle. Frequency analysis, cross correlation analysis, continuous and cross wavelet analysis provide mathematical evidence that the correlation between solar cycle and meteoric tritium does exist. Our results demonstrate that the response of tritium variation in precipitation to the solar cycle can be used to help us understand its role in the water cycle. Cosmic rays are composed of high-energy charged particles, mainly originating from outside the solar system (galactic cosmic rays, GCR), although there are also lower-energy solar cosmic rays (SCR). When cosmic rays reach the Earth's atmosphere, a cascade of secondary particles and nuclei are produced in numerous nuclear reactions between these secondary particles and the atmospheric nuclei. Isotopes formed in such reactions are called cosmogenic isotopes 1–3. The secondary neutrons (a part of the hadronic component) produce – for example – the well-known cosmogenic isotopes: 14 C and 3 H are produced mainly in 14 N(n,p) 14 C and 14 N(n, 3 H) 12 C reactions, while 10 Be and 7 Be are formed mainly by spallation of oxygen and nitrogen 4–6. Hence, the temporal and spatial variations of cosmogenic isotopes in the environment can be used as tracers of different atmospheric, hydrological or geochemical processes 7. Tritium production is different from 14 C: the latter is caused by capture of a thermal neutron, while the former is a threshold-like reaction requiring at least ~4 MeV energy of the neutron. Long-term changes are generally attributed to geomagnetic field effects, but short-term changes in cosmogenic isotope production rates are primarily driven by the magnetic field variation of the Sun. The Earth's geomagnetic field modulated by the solar wind allows charged cosmogenic particles to enter the atmosphere at different threshold energies from the
Uploads
Journal papers by Marjan Temovski
геолошка карта на СФРЈ во размер 1:100 000 (листовите кои се однесуваат на Македонија), при што се дигитализирани вкупно 1443 полигони, со вкупна планарна површина од 3078,46 km2, што претставува 11,97 % од вкупната површина на Р.Македонија (25713 km2). Врз основа на дигитализираните податоци беа пресметани површините на карстните карпи според типот и староста, при што најголемиот дел се мермери со 51,05 %, додека според староста најзастапени се тријаските (варовници и доломити) со 37 %. Изготвени се и две карти на површинска распространетост на карстните карпи: според типот на карпите и според староста на карпите, а воедно извршена е и пресметка на застапеноста на карстните карпи по општини, при што како општина со најголема површина на карстни карпи се издвојува општината Македонски Брод со површина од 531,72 km2. Векторските податоци и дигиталните карти ќе послужат како основа за понатамошни проучувања на карстот во Македонија, лесно ќе може да се
комбинираат со останати податоци (раседи, пештери, карстни извори, врнежи, морфометриски анализи на теренот и др.), а ќе послужат и за што попрецизно дефинирање и систематизација на карстните терени во Македонија."
in Cambrian marbles by successive thermal carbonic and sulfuric acid speleogenesis. The
cave has a thick partly corroded calcite crust, abundant gypsum deposits, with cupolas, ceiling
and wall channels, feeders and replacement pockets as some of the most characteristic
morphological features. Distribution of morphology and deposits suggest a hypogenic origin
in two distinct speleogenetic phases: the first by thermal CO2 rich waters, the second by
sulfuric acid dissolution, which were separated by complete infilling of cave passages with
pyroclastic-derived clays. In the first phase of speleogenesis, cave passages were formed by
dissolution along fractures due to cooling of rising carbonated thermal waters. These phreatic
morphologies were later covered with a thick calcite crust deposited in a shallow phreatic
environment. In Early Pleistocene the cave was completely filled with clays due to deposition
of pyroclastic rocks in a lacustrine environment in the nearby Mariovo Basin. Mariovo Lake
sediments were later incised by the Buturica River, which cut down into Cambrian marbles,
creating its superimposed valley. Incision lowered the water table and allowed removal of the
clay deposits in Provalata Cave. The second phase of speleogenesis started after introduction
of H2S associated with rising thermal waters. Oxidation produced sulfuric acid, which rapidly
dissolved first calcite crust, then marble host rock. Condensation-corrosion by sulfuric vapors
replaced carbonate rock with gypsum producing replacement pockets as well as second
generation of pockets and cupolas. The contact of sulfuric acid with the clay deposits formed
alunite, jarosite, and natroalunite. 40Ar/39Ar dating gave maximum ages of 1.6 Ma (alunite)
and 1.46 Ma (jarosite) for this last stage of speleogenesis, thus making it the second 40Ar/39Ar
dating of a sulfuric cave in Europe (after Kraushöhle in Austria), and the first dated cave in
the Republic of Macedonia."
Conference papers & presentations by Marjan Temovski
Books by Marjan Temovski
Hypogenic karst registered is mainly the result of hydrothermal speleogenesis due to increased geothermal gradient in connection with nearby Pliocene-Pleistocene volcanic centers, with occurrence of sulfuric acid speleogenesis and ghost-rock weathering due to local geological or lithological control. Epigenic speleogenesis is strongly controlled by base level oscillations, with also examples of deep phreatic (now fossil) caves connected to regional base level rise, and per-ascensum speleogenesis.
Another important finding is the constraining of the timing of Mariovo Lake draining in the Pleistocene, an important event in order to understand the geomorphological evolution in Macedonia, as it led to the onset of fluvial development and incision of valleys, shaping most of the present morphology.
Papers by Marjan Temovski
геолошка карта на СФРЈ во размер 1:100 000 (листовите кои се однесуваат на Македонија), при што се дигитализирани вкупно 1443 полигони, со вкупна планарна површина од 3078,46 km2, што претставува 11,97 % од вкупната површина на Р.Македонија (25713 km2). Врз основа на дигитализираните податоци беа пресметани површините на карстните карпи според типот и староста, при што најголемиот дел се мермери со 51,05 %, додека според староста најзастапени се тријаските (варовници и доломити) со 37 %. Изготвени се и две карти на површинска распространетост на карстните карпи: според типот на карпите и според староста на карпите, а воедно извршена е и пресметка на застапеноста на карстните карпи по општини, при што како општина со најголема површина на карстни карпи се издвојува општината Македонски Брод со површина од 531,72 km2. Векторските податоци и дигиталните карти ќе послужат како основа за понатамошни проучувања на карстот во Македонија, лесно ќе може да се
комбинираат со останати податоци (раседи, пештери, карстни извори, врнежи, морфометриски анализи на теренот и др.), а ќе послужат и за што попрецизно дефинирање и систематизација на карстните терени во Македонија."
in Cambrian marbles by successive thermal carbonic and sulfuric acid speleogenesis. The
cave has a thick partly corroded calcite crust, abundant gypsum deposits, with cupolas, ceiling
and wall channels, feeders and replacement pockets as some of the most characteristic
morphological features. Distribution of morphology and deposits suggest a hypogenic origin
in two distinct speleogenetic phases: the first by thermal CO2 rich waters, the second by
sulfuric acid dissolution, which were separated by complete infilling of cave passages with
pyroclastic-derived clays. In the first phase of speleogenesis, cave passages were formed by
dissolution along fractures due to cooling of rising carbonated thermal waters. These phreatic
morphologies were later covered with a thick calcite crust deposited in a shallow phreatic
environment. In Early Pleistocene the cave was completely filled with clays due to deposition
of pyroclastic rocks in a lacustrine environment in the nearby Mariovo Basin. Mariovo Lake
sediments were later incised by the Buturica River, which cut down into Cambrian marbles,
creating its superimposed valley. Incision lowered the water table and allowed removal of the
clay deposits in Provalata Cave. The second phase of speleogenesis started after introduction
of H2S associated with rising thermal waters. Oxidation produced sulfuric acid, which rapidly
dissolved first calcite crust, then marble host rock. Condensation-corrosion by sulfuric vapors
replaced carbonate rock with gypsum producing replacement pockets as well as second
generation of pockets and cupolas. The contact of sulfuric acid with the clay deposits formed
alunite, jarosite, and natroalunite. 40Ar/39Ar dating gave maximum ages of 1.6 Ma (alunite)
and 1.46 Ma (jarosite) for this last stage of speleogenesis, thus making it the second 40Ar/39Ar
dating of a sulfuric cave in Europe (after Kraushöhle in Austria), and the first dated cave in
the Republic of Macedonia."
Hypogenic karst registered is mainly the result of hydrothermal speleogenesis due to increased geothermal gradient in connection with nearby Pliocene-Pleistocene volcanic centers, with occurrence of sulfuric acid speleogenesis and ghost-rock weathering due to local geological or lithological control. Epigenic speleogenesis is strongly controlled by base level oscillations, with also examples of deep phreatic (now fossil) caves connected to regional base level rise, and per-ascensum speleogenesis.
Another important finding is the constraining of the timing of Mariovo Lake draining in the Pleistocene, an important event in order to understand the geomorphological evolution in Macedonia, as it led to the onset of fluvial development and incision of valleys, shaping most of the present morphology.