History

Ang mga taong 1571-1600 ay ang mahalagang panahon sa paglalatag ng pundasyong kolonyal ng kapangyarihang Espanyol sa Pilipinas. Ito ang magbabalangkas at magtatakda ng hubog at pangkalahatang kalakaran ng kolonyalismong Espanyol sa kapuluan sa buong panahon ng kanilang pananatili. Mula sa perspektibang maritimo, lumitaw ang isang alternatibong pagtingin sa proseso ng kolonyalismong Espanyol. Naitakda ng pag-aaral na ang patakaran ng repartimiento at sistemang encomienda ay ang espasyal na pagpapahayag ng konseptong partisoni-de-fondo; ang pagtatatag ng mga astillero, mula Luzon hanggang Zamboanga, ay sumisimbolo sa maistre ng bagong bangkang-bayan (bayang-kolonyal) ; ang pueblo bilang sosyo-espasyal na pagpapahayag ng kaayusan sa bangkang galera kung saan itinakda ang lugar ng mga Indios sa banchi bilang tagagaod o alipin ; at, ang pangkalahatang sanhi at tendensiya ng opresyong kolonyal bilang likas na konsekwensiya ng kalikasan at layunin ng digmang-galera sa pag-aangkin ng teritoryo, pagsasamsam ng mga ari-arian at pang-aalipin sa mga sakop. Ang kabuuan ng tradisyong ito ang nagbigay ng konteksto sa naging kondukta ng pananakop at proseso ng kolonisasyong Espanyol tungo sa transpormasyong kolonyal. The period 1571-1600 was the foundational phase in the process of Spanish colonization in the Philippines. It was in this period that the general outline and character of Spanish colonialism in the Philippines were established which defined and guided trends and tendencies of its policies for the entire duration of the colonial period. Viewed from a maritime perspective, the study offers an alternative interpretation in the process of Spanish colonization. The study presented the policy of repartimiento and the encomienda system as spatial expression of the concept of partisoni-de-fondo; the astilleros dotting the archipelago from Luzon to Zamboanga, symbolically represents the maistre of the newly established shipshape (galley) colonial society; the pueblo system serves as the socio-spatial expression of the new socio-spatial order wherein the Indios were clearly established in the benches as rowers or slaves; and, the general causes and tendencies of colonial oppression were natural consequences of the objectives and nature of galley-warfare towards conquest of territories, looting and slavery. The entire gamut of this tradition of maritime warfare places in context how Spanish colonization proceeded and the general conduct in the process of colonial transformation.

Abstrak Itinuturing ang dayuhang pangangalakal na panlabas na istumulus sa pag-unlad ng maraming lipunan. Ang maritimong kalakalan sa rehiyon ng Timog-Silangang Asya ang nasa likod sa pagbubuo ng mga maagang maritimong estado sa rehiyon at ang yamang nagmumula dito ang nagtustos at nagpalawig sa mga emperyo sa Dagat Indiano. Batay sa mga datos, malalim, malawak at intensibo ang naging paglahok ng Pilipinas sa maritimong kalakalan sa Timog-Silangang Asya na naka-sentro sa Dagat Timog Tsina. Nagsimula sa pagiging marhinal na destinasyon naging integral bahagi ito simula sa kalagitnaan ng ika-11 siglo. Simula sa panahong ito ang mga ebidensyang arkeolohikal, etnohistorikal at istorikal ay maghahayag ng mga palatandaan ng ibayong pag-unlad sa kapuluan kaugnay sa maritimong kalakalan: ang pagusbong ng mga pamayanang daungan, pagdebelop ng hirarkiyang panlipunan at pang-pamayanan, paglitaw ng mga daungang sentrong kalakalan at ekonomiko, at ang integrasyong pulitikal na sumaklaw sa mas malawak na nasasakupan, lagpas sa lebel ng barangay, sa ilalim ng pamamahala ng karahaan pagsapit ng ika-16 na dantaon. Tatlong salik ang nakikitang nasa likod sa pagbuo ng karahaan: 1) ang direktang kaugnayan nito sa dayuhang kalakalan; 2) ang pagkontrol o monopolyo sa daloy ng kalakal; at, 3) ang kakayanan ng raja na mapanatili at mapalawig ang dalawang nauna. Abstract: Maritime Trade in the evolution of Karahaan until the 16 th Century Foreign trade has long been regarded as a stimulus in the development of early societies. Early maritime trade in Southeast Asia was credited for the development of early maritime states in the region and the proceeds from this trade sustained and consitute significant source of riches for the Indian Ocean empires. Sources reveal the Philippines had a long history ang intensive pariticpation in the maritime trade network in Southeast Asia centered in the South China Sea. From a marginal destination it became a major player beginning the second half of the 11 th century. From this period, archaeological, ethnohistorical and historical sources would reveal evidence of intense development in the archipelago in connection with the regional maritime trade: the emergence of port communities, social ranking and heirarchy of settlement, emergence of entrepots and as economic centers, and the suggestion of a wider political integration, beyond baranganic organization, by the the 16 th century known as karahaan. Three factors stands out in the development of karahaan: 1) its direct correlation with foreign trade; 2) the imperatives of monoploy or control of the trade; and, 3) the ability of the raja to sustain and enhance foreign trade under its control. Ang kalakalang maritimo ay isa sa popular na tema sa pag-aaral ng ebolusyon sa sistema ng pamamahala at pagbubuo ng maagang estado sa Timog-Silangang Asya. 1 Maliban sa mga arkeolohikal na pag-aaral sa panahong

Ang inisyal na pagtatagpo ng mananakop at katutubong lipunang Pilipino ay isang mahalagang hugpungang pangkasaysayan na kung mauunawaan nang lubos ay maaaring makapagbigay linaw sa naging tunguhin (pattern) ng ugnayang kolonyal sa buong kahabaan ng dominasyong Espanyol. Sinuri ng pag-aaral ang inisyal na pagtatagpong ito mula sa lapit ng maritimong kasaysayan. Isinulong ng pag-aaral ang ideya na isang conquista maritimo, sa tradisyon ng digmang galera sa halip na 'misyon'-ng Kristyanisasyon at Sibilisasyon, ang ginawang pananakop ng Espanyol. Sa kabilang banda, ang naging pakikitungo dito ng lipunang Pilipino ay mula rin sa konteksto ng sariling kultura ng pagdaragat na nagpundar sa lipunang barangay. Ang pinakahayag at makapangyarihang ekspresyon ng kulturang ito ay ang kayaw. Sa ganitong konteksto ang pagtatagpo ng Espanyol at Pilipino ay engkuwentro ng dalawang lipunang maritimo. Sa kanilang pagtatagpo, naging hayag ang pagkakaiba ng dalawang kulturang maritimo sa materyal na aspekto at sa lebel ng pagpapakahulugan. Magkagayunman, ang mga eksternal na anyo ng kapwa tradisyong maritimo, gaya ng : digmang-galera/ kayaw, tributos/tubos, pambibihag/alipin, primus-inter-pares/'vassalage' ay may mga pagkakatulad sa mga panlabas na pagpapahayag nito na nagsilbing kodigo o alituntunin (code) upang payagan ang negosasyong kultural. Mula sa mga inisyal na pagkakaunawaang ito nailatag ang pundasyon ng lipunang kolonyal. The initial colonial encounter between the Spaniards and Filipinos in the period between 1565-72 is a nodal point in history. If understood correctly it could provide a significant insight as to the tendencies that guided the colonial relationship throughout the entire Spanish colonial period. The present study approaches the study of this period from a maritime perspective. It forwards the notion that the Spanish conquest was a maritime conquest in the tradition of galley warfare, a shift from the common theme of Spanish civilizing and Christianizing mission. The Filipino reaction, on the other hand, is viewed within the context of its long maritime history that produced the baranganic society the most powerful expression of which was the tradition of kayaw. The initial colonial encounter, in this context, was therefore a face-off between two maritime cultures. Immediately manifest was the wide disparity in the material expression, along with ther ideological representation, of their respective maritime cultures. However, the external demonstrations of these culture, such as : galley-warfare/kayaw, tributos/tubos, raiding for captives/slavery, chiefdom/'vassalage', provides a semblance of a code which the two divergent cultures use in communicating. These codes offered an opportunity for cultural negotiation which laid the groundwork for the creation of the colonial society.

Ang Austronesya ay lugar ng kahanga-hangang pagkalat ng kultura sa panahong itinuturing na imposible ang paglalayag sa kalawakan ng karagatang sumasaklaw dito. Ang pag-unawa sa sinaunang pagkilos ng tao sa Austronesya ay mahalagang maunawaan sa konteksto ng kultura ng bangka bilang isang kompleks na binubuo ng salimbayang pag-uugnayan ng materyal na kapaligiran, kapaligirang tubigan (maritime environment) teknolohiya, at ng tradisyong maritimo (paggawa ng bangka at pagsakay) na nasa likod ng ebolusyon ng bangkang Austronesyano. Ang bangka, kung gayon, ay maituturing na repositoryo ng kabuuang kulturang maritimo at ang ebolusyon nito ay mapagpahiwatig ng mga naging pagkilos at pag-unlad ng tao sa panahon ng sinaunang ekspansiyong Austronesyano. Sa ganitong konteksto ginamit ng pag-aaral ang bangka bilang batis pangkasaysayan. Binigyan ng korelasyon ng pag-aaral ang ebolusyon ng bangka at ang pag-unlad ng sinaunang pamumuhay. Ang implikasyon nito sa Pilipinas ay ang kronolohikong pag-unlad ng bangka mula sa balsa (rafts), bangkang inukab (dugouts), bangkang tinabla (plank-built boats), at katigan (outrigger boats) na kumatawan sa pag-unlad ng panirahanan at pamumuhay mula sa nomadikong uri ng pamumuhay sa panahong Paleolitiko patungo sa sedentarisadong buhay ng panahong Neolitiko at mga tatag na pamayanan ng panahong Metal hanggang sa lipunang Barangay ng ika-16 na siglo. Mga susing salita: Bangka, Austronesya, lipunang maritimo, kultura ng bangka, migrasyon, ebolusyon ng bangka, kasaysayan ng bangka, kasaysayang maritimo, pagdaragat, austronesyano, bangkang Pilipino, Prehistori ng Pilipinas, bangka at lipunan The vast expanse of open sea that comprises Austronesia has authored the most fascinating story in the history of early human expansion and cultural movement. It is imperative to understand this early movement in the context of Austronesia's 'boat culture complex' where material environment, maritime environment, technology, and the people's maritime tradition (boatbuilding and sailing) formed an interacting complex, with a change in one affecting the others, providing the stimulus for the evolution of Austronesian boats and its corresponding impact on the development of the early maritime societies of Austronesia. The profound implication of these development on the Philippines is the chronological evolution of boats from rafts to dugout to plank boats and finally to outrigger boats. The study suggests the evolution of Philippines boats have a corresponding effect on the development of early Philippine society from the cave habitation sites during the Paleolithic (67,000-5,000 BP) to coastal/riverine sedentary settlements in the Neolithic (5,000 BP – 500 AD) and the more permanent villages by the metal period (500-900 AD) towards the Baranganic society until the 16 th century.

Laganap ang paggamit ng simbolismo ng bangka sa sistemang pulitikal ng maraming katutubong lipunang magdaragat sa Timog-Silangang Asya at, gayundin, sa mga isla sa Pasipiko (Manguin). Sa ilang pagkakataon, mahalagang ginamit din ang simbolismo ng bangka sa pagbibigay ng kahulugang espasyal (spatial meaning) sa lugar na inuukopa ng komunidad at/o estado (Salazar), sa kaayusang panlipunan (Van Wouden), sa mga mahahalagang konstruksyong istruktural, hal. bahay (Kana, Perez 7-8), at sa mahahalagang kapaniwalaan at ritwal ng bayan (Fox 342-367). Sa isang pag-aaral nabigyan ng balidasyon ang ganitong paggamit ng simbolismo ng bangka sa loob ng Pilipinas (Isorena, Ang Sakayan sa Pagbubuo ng Banua) subali't sa harap ng hamon ng modernismo ay tila unti-unti na itong natatabunan, bukod pa sa hindi na rin hayagan ang pagkilala sa ganitong tradisyon sa hanay ng mga kabataan. Tuloy nanganganib na mawala ito maging sa alaala ng bayan.

This paper argues that an examination of the historiographical trajectory of scholarly works on the Philippine peasantry, particularly peasants in Luzon provinces, and transnational migration can deepen our understanding of Carlos Bulosan's life and works. Using E. San Juan, Jr. 's Carlos Bulosan and the Imagination of the Class Struggle as the analytic focus in pursuing the argument, we aim to contextualize Bulosan's life story within the larger framework of the history of Philippine peasant movements and draw connections between his life in America and the contemporary experience of Filipino migrants. To reach these objectives, we need to understand San Juan's text as part of a wider scholarly terrain that has become increasingly interdisciplinary over the years from the 1970s up to the present.

Quezon City served as the Philippines's capital for almost three decades (1948–1976), yet Filipinos today barely remember this historical fact. Was the city, therefore, a failure? This book answers this question by presenting an unconventional historical geography of twentieth-century Quezon City, one that focuses not on its grandiose architecture and master plan but on its boundaries, peripheries, and marginal areas. In so doing, it shows how the city functioned as a buffer zone mediating between city and countryside, and thus developed due to the urban–rural overlaps inherent in sociohistorical forces such as colonialism, revolution, agrarian unrest, decolonization, migration, and authoritarianism. Not quite Manila-centric, this book is twentieth-century Philippine history from an off-center point of view.

Interdisciplinarity is one of the key catchphrases that define the ongoing educational reform in the Philippines. Through the K-12 basic education curriculum and the revamped tertiary-level general education curriculum, bureaucrats and their partners in the academe seek to equip students with knowledge and skills that will allow them to think and act beyond their chosen field. Such an edge supposedly affords graduates a competitive advantage in a highly globalized labor market. Nonetheless, one must not be carried away by the hype; interdisciplinarity, especially this version imposed from above, still has to be interrogated. For one, lost in the state-directed discourse of interdisciplinarity is the emancipatory tradition arising from epistemological movements that question methodological and conceptual conventions. In the discipline of history, one such epistemological movement-with "movement" deployed here in its broadest sense-is the push toward crafting a "history from below. " Foregrounding diversity rather than orthodoxy, this historiographical turn has sought to give voice to the voiceless. In the Philippines, the nineteenth-century ilustrados' conception of the nascent field of Philippine studies and the social histories that broke new ground starting in the 1970s best represent this progressive knowledge-power nexus. These examples demonstrate that interdisciplinarity, for it to be beneficial, should not be the goal itself but a means to an end. Without substantial changes emanating "from below, " especially among teachers and students from the huge number of educational institutions neglected by the state, the promise of interdisciplinarity that the Philippine government is peddling is nothing but the production of fantasy.

In March 2017, the issue of urban poor housing was exposed on a national scale when thousands of members of the urban poor group Kadamay forcibly occupied nearly 6,000 abandoned housing units meant for members of the Armed Forces of the Philippines and the Philippine National Police in Pandi, Bulacan. Kadamay members were accused of being mendicant anarchists by their critics, while their supporters lauded their determination in demanding, and winning, their rights to housing. While the issue polarized Philippine society, it is evident that the Occupy Pandi movement revitalized urban poor discourse, and brought back to the fore the contradictions between the promises of the city and the prevalence of poverty and lack of opportunity for the majority of its inhabitants, those belonging to the urban poor sector. This paper aims to contribute towards this discussion by attempting to present urban poor mentalities as formulated by the members of the urban poor themselves, and how they have manifested through art. Among the various member organizations of Kadamay is the cultural group Sining Kadamay or SiKad. Initially formed by Kadamay to serve as its cultural arm, SiKad grew into an organization-member of Kadamay. While Sikad has several art programs, this paper will focus on its theater program, the Teatro Mulong Sandoval, and its one-act play Gapok. Set in an urban poor community threatened by poverty and demolition, what makes Gapok unique is its intimacy, not just in content but also in terms of space, as the play was designed to be performed in urban poor communities, and transform its audience from spectators to spect-actors. The paper will scrutinize the dynamics of the art production in Gapok, how accurately it reflects the discourses that the urban poor engage in, and the role of the urban poor in (trans)forming art to serve their sector.

By revisiting the eruptions of Taal in 1911, Hibok-Hibok in 1951, and Pinatubo in 1991, this article interrogates Greg Bankoff's argument that "cultures of disaster" in the Philippines produce "coping mechanisms" manifested in public apathy and the state’s failure at mitigation. It argues for historical contingency as illustrated by the relative success at disaster mitigation in Pinatubo's case, despite extreme challenges. It highlights the warning system in which the Aeta who lived on Mount Pinatubo, along with volcanologists and other key actors, played crucial roles. The Aeta's nonscientific perspective was not an obstacle to understanding risks and taking defensive action.

In contrast to the literature's dominant focus on Western constructions of tropicality, this article explores representations of the tropics by the colonized, specifically the climatological conditions of the Philippines as portrayed in the late nineteenth century by the Europe-based native intellectuals known as ilustrados. Their anticolonial sentiment was intertwined with visceral estrangement from Spain and idealized views of the tropics, which reversed the colonizers' racial-geographic prejudice and asserted an identity as a civilizable tropical people capable of genius. Rizal's return visit to the homeland in 1887, however, made him agree with the Spanish premise about the climate in order to argue that colonial rule was the greater disaster.

In 2003 the Association of Southeast Asian Nations declared the establishment of an ASEAN Community. The teaching of regional history is seen as indispensable to the attainment of this goal. Eight country reports commissioned by UNESCO Bangkok in 2013 serve as the basis of an inquiry into history education and the teaching of Southeast Asian history in primary and secondary schools. State control of education has produced school systems that, despite their potential, hamper the imagining of a regional community. Under state directives, schools prioritize political socialization into the nation-state and sacrifice shared regional history in favour of national history. Yet promoting interest in national and Southeast Asian histories is possible.

This article presents two modes of export-oriented sugar hacienda production in the late-nineteenth-century Spanish Philippines. The Hacienda de Calamba epitomised a large-scale estate under a religious corporation; it was an enclave economy reliant on local capital and technology. In contrast, Negros showcased a range of haciendas of varying sizes in a frontier setting involving different ethnicities and supported by capital and technology mediated directly by foreign merchant houses. In both locations sugar planters opposed the colonial state, but whereas leaseholders in Calamba, led by Rizal's family, became intentionally political in their resistance, in Negros planters engaged in a persistent and calibrated evasion of the state.

The dominant literature on transnationalism regards it as an alternative way of framing immigration, but the a priori exclusion of labor migrants from the scope of migrant transnationalism is untenable. Evidence from East Asia suggests that labor migrants, who are compelled by the prevailing policy regime in the region to become sojourners, engage in what can be called modular transnationalism. Labor migrants are East Asia's prototypical transmigrants when seen in light of the rising trend of immigration via marriage migration, in which case transnationalism can be highly constrained by the state and cultural politics. The discussion draws mainly, but not exclusively, from the transnational practices of migrants from the Philippines. Migrant Transnationalisms As Portes (2001:182) admits, when it was first introduced, " The concept of transnationalism did provide a new perspective on contemporary migra

Despite the widespread popularity of the discourse on diasporas since the 1980s, the recognition of a Filipino diaspora in the wider Anglophone scholarly world did not occur until the mid 2000s. A major factor for this recognition was the considerable number of scholarly works on Filipino Americans produced largely by Filipino American scholars who used diaspora as theoretical frame starting in the late 1990s. Grappling with the realities of the global migrations of Filipinos, the Philippine state and Filipinos in the Philippines and in other parts of the world also began to deploy the diaspora discourse. This article analyzes the ways in which the discursive fields in the US and in the Philippines have converged or diverged. Although diaspora can be a problematic concept, the author examines methodological issues that focus not so much on identities but on the imagined and constructed collectivity within which the putative diasporan identity of Filipinos is embedded. Without reducing diaspora to a reifying checklist, the author explores the Filipino diaspora discourse along these five dimensions: (a) population dispersal from an original homeland, real or imagined; (b) a process of diasporization; (c) ongoing relationship with the homeland, nurtured by collective memory or mythology; (d) idealization of return to the homeland; and (e) self-awareness or collective consciousness that is intergenerational and interrelated to coethnics and compatriots within the diaspora.