Peer Reviewed Journal Papers by Chris Loendorf
American Indian Rock Art, Volume 50, 2024
The Gila River Indian Community (GRIC) Cultural Resource Management Program Sensitive Site Herita... more The Gila River Indian Community (GRIC) Cultural Resource Management Program Sensitive Site Heritage Preservation Program focuses on the identification and protection of at-risk archaeological sites. Initial work focuses on pedestrian and unmanned aerial vehicle (drone) reconnaissance to identify the locations and extent of sensitive sites. Once sites are identified they are documented and assessed as to their degree of risk. This documentation includes detailed recording of petroglyph panels with sketches, scaled illustrations, and photography including drone imagery and photogrammetry. Damage mitigation efforts are undertaken at those sites that are negatively impacted and considered at risk. This work includes the use of graffiti-removal products, sign and fence installation, road closures, and site monitoring with cameras. Project work has resulted in the identification and protection of archaeological sites throughout the GRIC. The project is already showing signs of having a positive impact; to date, at every location where conservation measures have been implemented, petroglyph panels have not been subject to additional vandalism. In addition, data collected from monitored sites show that all recent site impacts have been limited to trash dumping, the creation of camp fire rings, and tire track damage. This research also shows that many people will assist in the protection of cultural resources once they become aware of conservation issues.
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2023
Data recovery investigations in the Blackwater area along the middle Gila River in south-central ... more Data recovery investigations in the Blackwater area along the middle Gila River in south-central Arizona identified ceramic and lithic artifacts derived from the Rio Grande region. These remains were collected from GR-1425, which is located at the heading of the Blackwater canal system within the Gila River Indian Community. The site lacks evidence for permanent occupation, and instead only short-term habitation occurred. Extensive evidence for weapon manufacturing suggests that the temporary relocation was associated with conflict, and radiocarbon dates suggest that the cultural remains were deposited after the Hohokam Classic period ended circa CE 1450. The most parsimonious explanation for the data from GR-1425 is that a group of Eastern Puebloans temporarily moved to the middle Gila River around the time of the Pueblo Revolt in CE 1680. As a result of increased interactions of disparate populations brought together by the extensive population movements that occurred at this time, substantial changes in regional ceramic traditions occurred, and data from GR-1425 suggest the extent of these interactions was more wide-scale than previously recognized.
KIVA Journal of Southwestern Anthropology and History, 2020
Within the Phoenix Basin in southern Arizona, disk beads have long been highly valued. Remarkably... more Within the Phoenix Basin in southern Arizona, disk beads have long been highly valued. Remarkably, the Akimel O’Odham (i.e., Pima) and Pee Posh (i.e., Maricopa) still place great importance on them today. Similar beads were formed from shell, stone, and clay. The effort necessary to manufacture beadsfromtheseconstituentsvaries,butbeadsmadefromdifferentmaterials are often macroscopically indistinguishable. Furthermore, some raw materials had to be imported, while other constituents were locally available. These factors should have affected the value of different bead types, and ethnographic evidence shows that indigenous people have clearly defined preferences for attributes, including color and material. In particular, beads made from shell and turquoise are recognized as being most valuable. This paper presents archaeological, ethnohistorical, ethnographic, and contemporary data that show that small disk beads were a form of wealth that was employed in trade transactions.
Journal of Arizona Archaeology, 2019
Although obsidian was only rarely employed during the Archaic period in the Hohokam region of sou... more Although obsidian was only rarely employed during the Archaic period in the Hohokam region of southern Arizona, use of this natural glass became widespread during the pre-Classic period around AD 600 and continued unabated through the late nineteenth century. As a result of its unique physical properties, this stone was largely if not exclusively used to manufacture weapons, specifically small arrow tips. This factor appears to have affected acquisition patterns for this stone, and data suggest that obsidian was primarily obtained as a raw material through trade. Simultaneously, in rare circumstances points appear to have been introduced on the tips of enemy's arrows, points were also sometimes collected as talismans from settings such as battlefields, and obsidian was occasionally acquired from earlier site components. However, considerable evidence demonstrates that the stone was an important commodity, the vast majority of which was obtained through trade with closely allied peoples who lived outside the Phoenix Basin.
Journal of Arizona Archaeology, 2019
Recent excavations at the Lower Santan Platform Mound in the
Gila River Indian Community (GRIC) i... more Recent excavations at the Lower Santan Platform Mound in the
Gila River Indian Community (GRIC) identified three unusually large
circular rock and adobe features on the floor of an exceptionally
large room within the mound compound. These features have been
referred to as “pedestals” and they appear to be the bases of beehive-
shaped adobe grain storage facilities. These distinctive features
have not been previously identified within the GRIC, but they are
common in some peripheral areas including the Tonto Basin, along
the San Pedro River, and in some portions of Northern Mexico. Given
their nature, these features are not likely to have been emulated for
stylistic reasons, and instead they more likely reflect differences in
the cultural traditions of the makers. This suggests the pedestals may
be evidence for close relationships, including immigration, between
the Phoenix Basin and other areas. Historical documentation, ethnographic evidence, and oral traditions support this possibility.
American Antiquity, 2019
This article summarizes the results of controlled experiments in which flaked-stone points that v... more This article summarizes the results of controlled experiments in which flaked-stone points that varied in impact strength by a factor of almost three were shot at media that were increasingly inelastic and therefore likely to break the points. Broken tips were reworked if possible, and used again under the same conditions. Our results show that all damage to low impact-strength materials, especially obsidian, was generally catastrophic, and, consequently, these points could only rarely be reworked. The fact that low-strength stones were commonly used to make small arrowpoints suggests that reworking was not a primary concern for their designers. Furthermore, in those instances when broken tips could be reworked, their performance declined. In addition, reworking broken points also resulted in shapes that are uncommon in many arrowpoint assemblages. Our results suggest that the original design attributes of arrowpoints may have been less affected by reworking, and, consequently, may more accurately suggest temporal and behavioral associations. Este artículo resume los resultados de los experimentos controlados en los que puntas de proyectil de piedra que varían en la resistencia al impacto en un factor de casi tres se dispararon a materiales que eran cada vez más inelásticos y, por lo tanto, que podían romper las puntas. Las puntas rotas se reformaron si era posible y se volvieron a usar en las mismas condiciones. Nues-tros resultados muestran que el daño a los materiales de baja resistencia al impacto, como la obsidiana, fueron generalmente catastróficos, y, en consecuencia, estas puntas rara vez se podian volver a trabajar. El hecho de que piedras de baja resistencia se usaran comúnmente para hacer pequeñas puntas de flecha sugiere que los diseñadores no pensaban en reacondicionarlas. Además, en aquellos casos en que las puntas rotas se pudieran reacondicionar, su rendimiento disminuía. En consecuencia, la reformatización de puntas rotas también dio lugar a formas que son poco comunes en muchos conjuntos de puntas de flecha. Nuestros resultados sugieren que los atributos de diseño originales de las puntas de flecha pueden haberse visto menos afectados por el retoque, y, en consecuencia, pueden sugerir con mayor precisión asociaciones temporales y de comportamiento. Palabras clave: reformación de puntas de proyectil, daño debido al uso, diseño, rendimiento, restricciones de materia prima, experimento controlado R esearchers have identified many variables that conditioned the form of flaked-stone projectile points (Shott 1996). These varied factors can be grouped into three general lines of inquiry: design characteristics, raw material constraints, and reworking. Point design variables include both stylistic expressions (e.g., serrations) that do not substantially change point performance as well as intentional modifications (e.g., side notching of triangular points) that do significantly alter point function, and, therefore, are potentially related to differences in the intended use (
Kiva , 2018
Much of what is known regarding Historic period Native American communities is based on studying ... more Much of what is known regarding Historic period Native American communities is based on studying documents that were written by non-indigenous peoples. However, archaeological excavations in a portion of the Blackwater Village within the Gila River Indian Community provide another perspective on Native American life ways within south-central Arizona during the late 1800s. The latter nineteenth century was a pivotal time for the Akimel O’Odham (i.e., Pima) who have long lived within the Phoenix Basin, and they experienced dramatic changes in their subsistence strategies, settlement patterns, craft production, and other cultural practices during this time. These recent investigations demonstrate that the Akimel O’Odham were not passive recipients of Euroamerican culture, and instead they chose to adopt some aspects of non-native practices while at the same time retaining important traditions. As a result, the Akimel O’Odham have successfully maintained their society in the face of tremendous hardships, and Blackwater Village remains a vibrant settlement to this day.
Archaeologists have previously proposed several different measures of flaked stone raw material "... more Archaeologists have previously proposed several different measures of flaked stone raw material " quality " , but this variable has proven difficult to quantify, and the precise characteristics that improve performance remain unclear. This paper presents the results of controlled experiments that were designed to test projectile points made from stones with varying impact strength. By comparing an independent measure of strength with projectile point experimental data, our research suggests that this variable can be objectively measured, and it is a good predictor of some aspects of projectile tip function. Our results show that highly homogenous fine-grained materials with low impact strength (e.g., obsidian) perform well when penetrating elastic materials such as skin and muscle. These same materials , however, function poorly when penetrating more inelastic materials like rawhide, and they are substantially less durable.
Archaeologists have previously proposed several different measures of flaked stone raw material "... more Archaeologists have previously proposed several different measures of flaked stone raw material " quality " , but this variable has proven difficult to quantify, and the precise characteristics that improve performance remain unclear. This paper presents the results of controlled experiments that were designed to test projectile points made from stones with varying impact strength. By comparing an independent measure of strength with projectile point experimental data, our research suggests that this variable can be objectively measured, and it is a good predictor of some aspects of projectile tip function. Our results show that highly homogenous fine-grained materials with low impact strength (e.g., obsidian) perform well when penetrating elastic materials such as skin and muscle. These same materials , however, function poorly when penetrating more inelastic materials like rawhide, and they are substantially less durable.
This paper applies artifact design theory to the study of flaked-stone projectile points. The rol... more This paper applies artifact design theory to the study of flaked-stone projectile points. The role of human engineering in the point production process is emphasized in this analytical perspective. as developed here, this research paradigm postulates that people make highly-shaped artifacts, such as flaked-stone projectile points, with the intent of performing one or more specific tasks. Both available materials and known manufacturing techniques limit the design process, while the production and performance of projectiles is constrained by the laws of physics. although physical parameters limit variability, considerable room remains for individual or group expression , and projectile point characteristics are the product of both cultural identity and performance requirements. Projectile point design theory as developed here is not a replacement for previous analytical approaches including typological methods, and instead compliments this research.
Archaeologists have long used the prehistoric inhabitants of the Phoenix Basin in south-central A... more Archaeologists have long used the prehistoric inhabitants of the Phoenix Basin in south-central Arizona as an example of a failed or collapsed society, and most prehistorians still assert that Hohokam material culture patterns ended at the close of the Classic period (circa A.D. 1150–1450). Although researchers are increasingly recognizing connections between prehistoric and modern indigenous people, little consensus exists regarding the cause or causes of the dramatic alterations in material culture patterns that occurred in the region. Most archaeologists who have studied the changes at the end of the Classic period, however, have not fully considered the implications of previous and subsequent conditions, including similar and seemingly abrupt shifts in cultural practices that occurred both before and after this time. This paper uses Akimel O'Odham (i.e., Pima) cultural knowledge to contextualize the " Hohokam Collapse. " We show that this perspective of culture history explains the relationship between prehistoric and historic populations and answers many of the long-standing questions regarding cultural variation in the Phoenix Basin. Durante mucho tiempo, los arqueólogos han utilizado los habitantes prehistóricos de la cuenca de Phoenix en el centro-sur de Arizona (es decir, la cultura hohokam) como ejemplo de una sociedad que fracasó o colapsó. La mayoría de los prehistoriadores todavía afirma que los patrones de la cultura material hohokam terminaron al final del periodo clásico (hacia 1150–1450 d.C.). Aunque cada vez más se reconocen las conexiones entre los habitantes indígenas prehistóricos y modernos de la zona, hay desacuerdo sobre la causa o causas de las dramáticas alteraciones a los patrones de cultura material que se produjeron en la región. Sin embargo, la mayoría de los arqueólogos que han estudiado los cambios ocurridos al final del período clásico no han considerado las implicaciones de las condiciones anteriores y subsiguientes, incluyendo cambios similares y aparentemente abruptos en las prácticas culturales que se produjeron previamente. En este trabajo se utiliza el conocimiento cultural de los Akimel O'Odham (es decir, los pima) para contextualizar el " colapso hohokam ". Demostramos que esta perspectiva de la historia cultural explica la relación entre las poblaciones prehistóricas e históricas, y responde a muchas de las preguntas de larga data con respecto a la variación cultural en la cuenca de Phoenix.
Journal of Archaeological Science, Jan 2013
Eight prehistoric wells dug to a depth of ∼2 m below the modern ground surface were found in the ... more Eight prehistoric wells dug to a depth of ∼2 m below the modern ground surface were found in the alluvial sediments of McClellan Wash on Gila River Indian Community in southern Arizona. Charcoal from the sediments filling the wells yielded radiocarbon ages of ∼1000 B.C. The time in which wells were dug coincides with a period of general regional aridity and high ENSO activity in the American Southwest. Digging to access water may have occurred in response to period(s) of resource uncertainty, or as a logistical activity that engaged increasingly resource-tethered Late Archaic/Early Agricultural populations. These activities laid the foundation for agricultural practices that eventually became the dominant mode of subsistence in the low-lying areas of the Sonoran Desert.
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports , 2015
Why were stone projectile point blade margins serrated in some circumstances and not others? Care... more Why were stone projectile point blade margins serrated in some circumstances and not others? Carefully controlled experiments reported here are used to quantify the effects of this attribute on projectile performance. This research suggests that serration does not substantially alter point performance, and this characteristic may therefore vary independently of function. These results in conjunction with patterning in archeological data suggest that point blade traits including serration served as active symbols of sociocultural group membership in some areas, such as the Phoenix Basin in Southern Arizona.
Ethnohistorical and ethnographic observations from around the world indicate that projectiles wer... more Ethnohistorical and ethnographic observations from around the world indicate that projectiles were often made differently for warfare and hunting. Using experiential archaeology and analysis of a thousand years’ worth of data from the middle Gila River in Arizona, the authors argue that side notched arrow points were produced for hunting large animals and were designed to be retrieved and reused, while unnotched points were intended for single use and for another purpose: to kill people. The data suggests furthermore that the region witnessed a steady increase in levels of violence during the period under study.
Human Ecology, 2013
Dust in its myriad forms impacts human existence in arid environments; but dust is more than an e... more Dust in its myriad forms impacts human existence in arid environments; but dust is more than an environmental nuisance. It shapes and reshapes adaptive response and human ideology over the short and long term. In 2011, the Gila River Indian Community (GRIC), Arizona, U.S.A. sponsored a study of dust entrainment within the jurisdiction of its airshed. The study's primary objectives were to determine the relationship between sediment sources and sinks in premodern contexts and how indigenous people have coped with eolian activity since intensive settlement of the Middle Gila River Valley began. Ethnographic and archaeological sources indicate that people respect winds and observe cultural procedures consistent with their origin and to reduce their ill effects. Geomorphic data also show stratigraphic correspondence between relic wash channels and adjacent terrace and sand sheet deposits demonstrating a long history of eolian activity derived from fluvial sources. Climatological data from PM10 "exceedance events" corroborate anthropological analyses indicating that extreme dust events are typically westerlies and occur during exceptionally dry periods. Eolian dust is part of the ambient ecosystem of the GRIC and should be viewed as such within the modern cultural and regulatory environment governing these emissions.
Journal of Archaeological Science, 2013
Eight prehistoric wells dug to a depth of w2 m below the modern ground surface were found in the ... more Eight prehistoric wells dug to a depth of w2 m below the modern ground surface were found in the alluvial sediments of McClellan Wash on Gila River Indian Community in southern Arizona. Charcoal from the sediments filling the wells yielded radiocarbon ages of w1000 B.C. The time in which wells were dug coincides with a period of general regional aridity and high ENSO activity in the American Southwest. Digging to access water may have occurred in response to period(s) of resource uncertainty, or as a logistical activity that engaged increasingly resource-tethered Late Archaic/Early Agricultural populations. These activities laid the foundation for agricultural practices that eventually became the dominant mode of subsistence in the low-lying areas of the Sonoran Desert.
Why were stone projectile point blade margins serrated in some circumstances and not others? Care... more Why were stone projectile point blade margins serrated in some circumstances and not others? Carefully controlled
experiments reported here are used to quantify the effects of this attribute on projectile performance.
This research suggests that serration does not substantially alter point performance, and this characteristic
may therefore vary independently of function. These results in conjunction with patterning in archeological
data suggest that point blade traits including serration served as active symbols of sociocultural group membership
in some areas, such as the Phoenix Basin in Southern Arizona.
Human Ecology
Dust in its myriad forms impacts human existence in arid environments; but dust is more than an e... more Dust in its myriad forms impacts human existence in arid environments; but dust is more than an environmental nuisance. It shapes and reshapes adaptive response and human ideology over the short and long term. In 2011, the Gila River Indian Community (GRIC), Arizona, U.S.A. sponsored a study of dust entrainment within the jurisdiction of its airshed. The study’s primary objectives were to determine the relationship between sediment sources and sinks in premodern contexts and how indigenous people have coped with eolian activity since intensive settlement of the Middle Gila River Valley began. Ethnographic and archaeological sources indicate that people respect winds and observe cultural procedures consistent with their origin and to reduce their ill effects. Geomorphic data also show stratigraphic correspondence between relic wash channels and adjacent terrace and sand sheet deposits demonstrating a long history of eolian activity derived from fluvial sources. Climatological data from PM10 “exceedance events” corroborate anthropological analyses indicating that extreme dust events are typically westerlies and occur during exceptionally dry periods. Eolian dust is part of the ambient ecosystem of the GRIC and should be viewed as such within the modern cultural and regulatory environment governing these emissions.
Kiva, May 2014
This paper analyzes the distribution of flaked-stone projectile points from southern Arizona that... more This paper analyzes the distribution of flaked-stone projectile points from southern Arizona that have previously been suggested to date to the Historic period. The locations of these artifacts within the Gila River Indian Community and other lines of evidence including ceramic data are consistent with ethnohistorically
and ethnographically documented Akimel O’odham settlement patterns along the middle Gila River. The results of this analysis demonstrate that the three point types considered here were indeed produced during the Protohistoric and Historic periods, and it appears that it is possible to characterize diagnostic
projectile point types from this time. These data also provide corroborating
evidence for historically documented population movements during the Historic
period.
Uploads
Peer Reviewed Journal Papers by Chris Loendorf
Gila River Indian Community (GRIC) identified three unusually large
circular rock and adobe features on the floor of an exceptionally
large room within the mound compound. These features have been
referred to as “pedestals” and they appear to be the bases of beehive-
shaped adobe grain storage facilities. These distinctive features
have not been previously identified within the GRIC, but they are
common in some peripheral areas including the Tonto Basin, along
the San Pedro River, and in some portions of Northern Mexico. Given
their nature, these features are not likely to have been emulated for
stylistic reasons, and instead they more likely reflect differences in
the cultural traditions of the makers. This suggests the pedestals may
be evidence for close relationships, including immigration, between
the Phoenix Basin and other areas. Historical documentation, ethnographic evidence, and oral traditions support this possibility.
experiments reported here are used to quantify the effects of this attribute on projectile performance.
This research suggests that serration does not substantially alter point performance, and this characteristic
may therefore vary independently of function. These results in conjunction with patterning in archeological
data suggest that point blade traits including serration served as active symbols of sociocultural group membership
in some areas, such as the Phoenix Basin in Southern Arizona.
and ethnographically documented Akimel O’odham settlement patterns along the middle Gila River. The results of this analysis demonstrate that the three point types considered here were indeed produced during the Protohistoric and Historic periods, and it appears that it is possible to characterize diagnostic
projectile point types from this time. These data also provide corroborating
evidence for historically documented population movements during the Historic
period.
Gila River Indian Community (GRIC) identified three unusually large
circular rock and adobe features on the floor of an exceptionally
large room within the mound compound. These features have been
referred to as “pedestals” and they appear to be the bases of beehive-
shaped adobe grain storage facilities. These distinctive features
have not been previously identified within the GRIC, but they are
common in some peripheral areas including the Tonto Basin, along
the San Pedro River, and in some portions of Northern Mexico. Given
their nature, these features are not likely to have been emulated for
stylistic reasons, and instead they more likely reflect differences in
the cultural traditions of the makers. This suggests the pedestals may
be evidence for close relationships, including immigration, between
the Phoenix Basin and other areas. Historical documentation, ethnographic evidence, and oral traditions support this possibility.
experiments reported here are used to quantify the effects of this attribute on projectile performance.
This research suggests that serration does not substantially alter point performance, and this characteristic
may therefore vary independently of function. These results in conjunction with patterning in archeological
data suggest that point blade traits including serration served as active symbols of sociocultural group membership
in some areas, such as the Phoenix Basin in Southern Arizona.
and ethnographically documented Akimel O’odham settlement patterns along the middle Gila River. The results of this analysis demonstrate that the three point types considered here were indeed produced during the Protohistoric and Historic periods, and it appears that it is possible to characterize diagnostic
projectile point types from this time. These data also provide corroborating
evidence for historically documented population movements during the Historic
period.
a total of 184 specimens were submitted for EDXRF analysis, four of the artifacts were composed of raw materials other than obsidian.
1995 Burial Practices at Schoolhouse Mesa Sites. In The Archaeology of Schoolhouse Point Mesa, Roosevelt Platform Mound Study, by Owen Lindauer. Roosevelt Monograph Series 8, Anthropological Field Studies 37. Office of Cultural Resource Management, Department of Anthropology, ASU, Tempe.
Basin in AD 1694, our ancestors were living
in large villages along the Middle Gila River
(Wilson 2014). In our language, we are called
Akimel O’Odham, or “River People” in English,
and we still live in the same communities as our
ancestors. Our culture is one of the O’Odham
communities who still live in much of southern
Arizona. However, the O’Odham now occupy a
small portion of our aboriginal territory, which
extends well beyond the borders of the modern
reservations in Arizona.
mound communities. Archaeological data show that major
shifts in settlement patterns occurred over time within the Phoenix Basin, and these movements coincide with substantial changes in cultural traditions, including the appearance of platform mounds during the Classic period (ca. 1150-1450 AD).