Voice of History (New Issue 2) Journal of Central Department of History Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2015
Kashmir is located in the northern most part of India. During the early period, it played vital r... more Kashmir is located in the northern most part of India. During the early period, it played vital role in the dissemination of Buddhism to Central Asia, China, Tibet and Ladākh. Ancient literatures mention Kashmir as a part of Gāndhāra. It is certain that Buddhism came to Gāndhāra and Kashmir at the same time. Kashmir is an ancient land mentioned in the Greek classics of Ptolemy, Dionysios, Hakataios and Herodotos. Works of Al-masudi, Al-qazwini, Al-idrisi and Al-beruni also mention about Qashmir. The Greeks refer Kashmir as Kaspapyros, and describe it as one of the cities of Gāndhāra. To-yeng and Sung-yuan (578 CE) call it Shie-mi, while Xuan Zang (631 CE) described it as Kia-shi-mi-lo. The Tibetans refer to Kashmir as Khachul but the valley is known as Kashrat in Darādistān. Kashmir is known as the place as Kashir.
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million years ago by the folding of the Indian plate into
the more stationary Eurasian plate. It preserves a long geo-
logical history beginning from Archean epoch with evi-
dence of dynamic structural deformations of Himalayan
orogeny. The strong archaeological evidences undoubtedly con-
firm the presence of early humans in this difficult terrain
during the early Holocene period. It is clear that the early
human scaled the heights to enter the valley was a period
of climatic amelioration. It is important to note that the
landscapes carved by repeated glacial and fluvial activities
during the glacial and interglacial stages, have been ex-
ploited by the early humans for their needs.
interpretation was the most authentic. Writers of Indian history are not decided about whether the great Buddhist council was held in the time of Kanishka-I or in the time of one of his successors of the same name. It was in his time and by reason of this council that Kashmir became a great centre of Buddhist learning. According to one tradition, recorded in
details by Huen-tsang and Tibetan books, the fourth Buddhist council under the Kushan king Kanishka was held in Kashmir to reconcile the contradictory doctrines of the Sangha, and then divided into eighteen sects. Unlike the Asokan Council, which was attended by Theravadas only, this council was attended by members of many more sects, however the
Sarvastivadins, predominated. This council was an event of great significance and landmark in the history of Buddhism. It represents the rise of what may be called Sanskrit Buddhism. From onwards Sanskrit became the language of Buddhist thought and discussion all over the north. As has already been noticed, the canonical texts and the commentaries on them drawn up at the council were in Sanskrit. These were written or compiled by eminent Sanskrit scholars like Ashvaghosa
and Parshva. Inevitably all subsequent discussion on them was also in Sanskrit.
It is believed that the population density of the valley substantially increased during the Kushan period, though no quantity work has been done so far on these aspects of settlement patterns. Kalhana in Rajatangini mentioned that as a city founded by Turushka king Kanishka, who is well known in the history as the famous ruler of the Kushan
dynasty. Kushan levels in Northern India are generally ascribed the period of first three centuries of the Christian era. But in the case of Gandhara and Kashmir, span of the Kushan period could be stretched up to the 4th century A.D. As rulers issuing coins in imitation of the imperial Kushan coins are supposed to belong or related to the family of the Kushans
and can be called later Kushans. After the downfall of the imperial Kushans in Ganga-Yamuna plains, the Kushans were seemingly confined to the Gandhara, Kabul and Kashmir regions.
from Kashmir, Buddhism entered into Ladakh and it is contrary to the assumption that it came from Tibet. When Buddhism was virtually relegated to oblivion in other parts of India, the theology dominates the religious landscape of Ladakh primarily by catering to the changing needs of the laity with repositioning itself in terms of alteration/ addition in the architecture, ritual observance; acting as social actant and liturgical officiant. Though heavily influenced by Kashmir, the pantheon has been shaped by arid climate, tough terrain, silk route and prevalent tradition; preserving the principles of Buddhist ideology of other parts of India, it maintained its individuality in stupas, viharas, chaityas and divinities.
Sculptures are representational divinity in India whose origin and end is expressed through the religion and the spiritual beliefs. It is tough to state that when and where the first Buddha images appeared in the sculptural form and scholars have different opinion on this. It has been argued that the Buddha image is of Greek origin and first came into being at Gandhāra or in India proper, Buddha image known to be earlier than the first century A.D. It is admitted that Buddhist figures in Gandhāra are adaptations of western types.
With these leading facts established, the narrative of the School’s development automatically resolved itself into three topics: its infancy under the Sakas; its childhood and early adolescence under the Parthians; and its later adolescence and maturity under the Kushans. The most prolific and best known period in the history for producing sculpture is Kushana period. During this period; Gandhāra art was introduced which is basic art of later School of Arts. The first production of Buddha image could be associated with the time of Kushana’s period especially with Kanishka.
The purpose of sculptures was to glorify the Buddha. In the Early Indian School there is no clue of the Buddha ever having been so portrayed because of the fact that as per Buddhist tradition, the making of image was prohibited and Buddha himself discouraged the idea of making his image. Lastly to be believed that under the patronage of Kanishka, religious revolution was possible in the form of Buddhist Council. The outcome of the Fourth Buddhist Council was the creation of Buddha images was common under the start of new tradition of Mahayana and this Council sanctioned the worship of the Buddha through his iconic forms. Regarding the origin of Buddha images there are two schools of thought; Produce in Gandhāra area could be associated with the foreign influence of Gandhāra art and the one produce in Mathura area associated with the result of indigenous atmosphere.
Even in Kashmiri art style sculpture, the roots lay in the Gandhāra sculptural tradition. It had been a great centre of art and culture during ancient and medieval period. It received the same amount of recognition in the medieval time as a centre of academic activities as Nalanda enjoyed in the east. Kashmir produced a number of Buddhist images in the medieval period. The Kashmiri style was very assorted and attracted many different influences during its development which reflected to a large scale, the political conditions of the time and the relative position of Kashmir. Since Kashmir was once an integral part of the vast Kushana Empire, it is not surprising that the Gandhāra tradition to a great extent formed the roots of the Kashmiri Art style.
Ladakh apart from monasteries and picturesque beauty also famous for colossal images located at important ancient routes. The colossal images originated in Ladakh region especially Kargil District are considered to be the second largest sculptures in world after Bamiyan and witnessed the influences of Gandhāra art. The sculptures have been found across the northern region of India from Kashmir Valley to Kargil of Ladakh. The stray Sculptures of Kashmir region and colossal images of Kargil regions are the affluent of Gandhāra which are subsequently influenced to Gupta and Tibetan art. The Mulbek, Apathy and Kartse Maitreya of Kargil District proclaim from their magnificent appearance that it was one of the major trade route from Gandhāra region because reflecting the same art in those sculptures and also signifies that Buddhism was its zenith during Kushana period.
Keywords: Buddha, Gandhāra, Ladakh, Kargil, Maitreya, Greek, Kushana, Sculpture, Art, colossal image, Kanishka, Kushanas..
maney wall (mchod-rten), chain of colorful mountains, calm oasis and lakes, ruin castles, etc., all articulate its glorious past and beautiful people. Apart from monastic establishment, pre-historic settlements; it is known for petroglyphs sites scattered in almost every part of Ladakh and many studies have been done in the pasts.
Rock art in Ladakh is enormous and is known for its rich occurrence of petroglyphs. The traveler who visited the valleys of Ladakh came across archaic petroglyphs made by pecking and engraving techniques through the centuries. On the basis of style and technique of petroglyphs, it is apparent that different individuals might have been involved in depicting the petroglyphs of Upper Ladakh. Also to be noted that petrogylyphs are shown in clumsy manner in Upper Ladakh as compared to Lower Ladakh. In Lower Ladakh and in Nubra region mascoids or mask is very common. It has been the main route to Central Asia and like Xinjiang in Ladakh as well human figures carrying a mace at the waist are common. These are dated back to Bronze Age. Bird is common in Lower Ladakh but unknown in steppic world and not found in Upper Ladakh. Feline Tigers chasing an ibex similar to that in Renmudong are found in Khalsi of Lower Ladakh recorded by Francke. According to Frankfort the bird seems a little too early in his opinion. But here focus is mainly made on Upper Ladakh. The deer hunting theme is widely spread in Central Asia’s rock art during Sakas period that is also available in large extent in this area. It is evident that during the 2nd century B.C., the Upper Indus valley (Ladakh) and its continuance in Tibet have witnessed the passage of group of people related to those of the Central Asian steppes. Early history also linked steppe peoples with the territories of Achaemenid (Persia) empires through the Indus valley. Stylized figures haracteristically carried out in the so-called “animal style” design motifs refer directly to the Central Asian Saka style of design. This style is well attested in the entire Central Asian corridor extending roughly from Mongolia to the Black Sea. The moves of the Saka tribes and related groups are geographically wider and historically deeper and more complex than the usual historical sources and archaeological documents would lead us to suppose. The decorative art style from the steppe is easily identifiable in Ladakh rock art trough its graceful append sinuous line drawing, the highly ornamental qualities of the design as well as some stylistic specific characteristic such as circle S shaped design or spiral design located on shoulders or hip of the animal figures found mostly in Lower Ladakh. The present study of petroglyphs shows in a preliminary way that tribes of the Steppe groups (Andronovian, and, later Sako-Siberian) were largely present in Ladakh, and western Tibet from the Bronze Age to at least the 4th century B.C. They were also in contact with the “empires” of China to the east, and Persia to the west, through Upper Indus. Apart from Siberian and Sakas migration in this region of Ladakh, the petroglyphs indicate that early man, nomadic tribesmen, including the monks of north India, traders of the different parts of the world, traders and pilgrims, fierce Mongols, Changpas of Tibet, the Dards etc. inhabited or visited this region, as it being lying along the silk route was highly prosperous and an important trade region. Recent research by Russian scholars found promising area of petroglyphs in Ladakh in term of originality and possible evidence of historical and cultural links between ancient artifacts of India and Siberia.
million years ago by the folding of the Indian plate into
the more stationary Eurasian plate. It preserves a long geo-
logical history beginning from Archean epoch with evi-
dence of dynamic structural deformations of Himalayan
orogeny. The strong archaeological evidences undoubtedly con-
firm the presence of early humans in this difficult terrain
during the early Holocene period. It is clear that the early
human scaled the heights to enter the valley was a period
of climatic amelioration. It is important to note that the
landscapes carved by repeated glacial and fluvial activities
during the glacial and interglacial stages, have been ex-
ploited by the early humans for their needs.
interpretation was the most authentic. Writers of Indian history are not decided about whether the great Buddhist council was held in the time of Kanishka-I or in the time of one of his successors of the same name. It was in his time and by reason of this council that Kashmir became a great centre of Buddhist learning. According to one tradition, recorded in
details by Huen-tsang and Tibetan books, the fourth Buddhist council under the Kushan king Kanishka was held in Kashmir to reconcile the contradictory doctrines of the Sangha, and then divided into eighteen sects. Unlike the Asokan Council, which was attended by Theravadas only, this council was attended by members of many more sects, however the
Sarvastivadins, predominated. This council was an event of great significance and landmark in the history of Buddhism. It represents the rise of what may be called Sanskrit Buddhism. From onwards Sanskrit became the language of Buddhist thought and discussion all over the north. As has already been noticed, the canonical texts and the commentaries on them drawn up at the council were in Sanskrit. These were written or compiled by eminent Sanskrit scholars like Ashvaghosa
and Parshva. Inevitably all subsequent discussion on them was also in Sanskrit.
It is believed that the population density of the valley substantially increased during the Kushan period, though no quantity work has been done so far on these aspects of settlement patterns. Kalhana in Rajatangini mentioned that as a city founded by Turushka king Kanishka, who is well known in the history as the famous ruler of the Kushan
dynasty. Kushan levels in Northern India are generally ascribed the period of first three centuries of the Christian era. But in the case of Gandhara and Kashmir, span of the Kushan period could be stretched up to the 4th century A.D. As rulers issuing coins in imitation of the imperial Kushan coins are supposed to belong or related to the family of the Kushans
and can be called later Kushans. After the downfall of the imperial Kushans in Ganga-Yamuna plains, the Kushans were seemingly confined to the Gandhara, Kabul and Kashmir regions.
from Kashmir, Buddhism entered into Ladakh and it is contrary to the assumption that it came from Tibet. When Buddhism was virtually relegated to oblivion in other parts of India, the theology dominates the religious landscape of Ladakh primarily by catering to the changing needs of the laity with repositioning itself in terms of alteration/ addition in the architecture, ritual observance; acting as social actant and liturgical officiant. Though heavily influenced by Kashmir, the pantheon has been shaped by arid climate, tough terrain, silk route and prevalent tradition; preserving the principles of Buddhist ideology of other parts of India, it maintained its individuality in stupas, viharas, chaityas and divinities.
Sculptures are representational divinity in India whose origin and end is expressed through the religion and the spiritual beliefs. It is tough to state that when and where the first Buddha images appeared in the sculptural form and scholars have different opinion on this. It has been argued that the Buddha image is of Greek origin and first came into being at Gandhāra or in India proper, Buddha image known to be earlier than the first century A.D. It is admitted that Buddhist figures in Gandhāra are adaptations of western types.
With these leading facts established, the narrative of the School’s development automatically resolved itself into three topics: its infancy under the Sakas; its childhood and early adolescence under the Parthians; and its later adolescence and maturity under the Kushans. The most prolific and best known period in the history for producing sculpture is Kushana period. During this period; Gandhāra art was introduced which is basic art of later School of Arts. The first production of Buddha image could be associated with the time of Kushana’s period especially with Kanishka.
The purpose of sculptures was to glorify the Buddha. In the Early Indian School there is no clue of the Buddha ever having been so portrayed because of the fact that as per Buddhist tradition, the making of image was prohibited and Buddha himself discouraged the idea of making his image. Lastly to be believed that under the patronage of Kanishka, religious revolution was possible in the form of Buddhist Council. The outcome of the Fourth Buddhist Council was the creation of Buddha images was common under the start of new tradition of Mahayana and this Council sanctioned the worship of the Buddha through his iconic forms. Regarding the origin of Buddha images there are two schools of thought; Produce in Gandhāra area could be associated with the foreign influence of Gandhāra art and the one produce in Mathura area associated with the result of indigenous atmosphere.
Even in Kashmiri art style sculpture, the roots lay in the Gandhāra sculptural tradition. It had been a great centre of art and culture during ancient and medieval period. It received the same amount of recognition in the medieval time as a centre of academic activities as Nalanda enjoyed in the east. Kashmir produced a number of Buddhist images in the medieval period. The Kashmiri style was very assorted and attracted many different influences during its development which reflected to a large scale, the political conditions of the time and the relative position of Kashmir. Since Kashmir was once an integral part of the vast Kushana Empire, it is not surprising that the Gandhāra tradition to a great extent formed the roots of the Kashmiri Art style.
Ladakh apart from monasteries and picturesque beauty also famous for colossal images located at important ancient routes. The colossal images originated in Ladakh region especially Kargil District are considered to be the second largest sculptures in world after Bamiyan and witnessed the influences of Gandhāra art. The sculptures have been found across the northern region of India from Kashmir Valley to Kargil of Ladakh. The stray Sculptures of Kashmir region and colossal images of Kargil regions are the affluent of Gandhāra which are subsequently influenced to Gupta and Tibetan art. The Mulbek, Apathy and Kartse Maitreya of Kargil District proclaim from their magnificent appearance that it was one of the major trade route from Gandhāra region because reflecting the same art in those sculptures and also signifies that Buddhism was its zenith during Kushana period.
Keywords: Buddha, Gandhāra, Ladakh, Kargil, Maitreya, Greek, Kushana, Sculpture, Art, colossal image, Kanishka, Kushanas..
maney wall (mchod-rten), chain of colorful mountains, calm oasis and lakes, ruin castles, etc., all articulate its glorious past and beautiful people. Apart from monastic establishment, pre-historic settlements; it is known for petroglyphs sites scattered in almost every part of Ladakh and many studies have been done in the pasts.
Rock art in Ladakh is enormous and is known for its rich occurrence of petroglyphs. The traveler who visited the valleys of Ladakh came across archaic petroglyphs made by pecking and engraving techniques through the centuries. On the basis of style and technique of petroglyphs, it is apparent that different individuals might have been involved in depicting the petroglyphs of Upper Ladakh. Also to be noted that petrogylyphs are shown in clumsy manner in Upper Ladakh as compared to Lower Ladakh. In Lower Ladakh and in Nubra region mascoids or mask is very common. It has been the main route to Central Asia and like Xinjiang in Ladakh as well human figures carrying a mace at the waist are common. These are dated back to Bronze Age. Bird is common in Lower Ladakh but unknown in steppic world and not found in Upper Ladakh. Feline Tigers chasing an ibex similar to that in Renmudong are found in Khalsi of Lower Ladakh recorded by Francke. According to Frankfort the bird seems a little too early in his opinion. But here focus is mainly made on Upper Ladakh. The deer hunting theme is widely spread in Central Asia’s rock art during Sakas period that is also available in large extent in this area. It is evident that during the 2nd century B.C., the Upper Indus valley (Ladakh) and its continuance in Tibet have witnessed the passage of group of people related to those of the Central Asian steppes. Early history also linked steppe peoples with the territories of Achaemenid (Persia) empires through the Indus valley. Stylized figures haracteristically carried out in the so-called “animal style” design motifs refer directly to the Central Asian Saka style of design. This style is well attested in the entire Central Asian corridor extending roughly from Mongolia to the Black Sea. The moves of the Saka tribes and related groups are geographically wider and historically deeper and more complex than the usual historical sources and archaeological documents would lead us to suppose. The decorative art style from the steppe is easily identifiable in Ladakh rock art trough its graceful append sinuous line drawing, the highly ornamental qualities of the design as well as some stylistic specific characteristic such as circle S shaped design or spiral design located on shoulders or hip of the animal figures found mostly in Lower Ladakh. The present study of petroglyphs shows in a preliminary way that tribes of the Steppe groups (Andronovian, and, later Sako-Siberian) were largely present in Ladakh, and western Tibet from the Bronze Age to at least the 4th century B.C. They were also in contact with the “empires” of China to the east, and Persia to the west, through Upper Indus. Apart from Siberian and Sakas migration in this region of Ladakh, the petroglyphs indicate that early man, nomadic tribesmen, including the monks of north India, traders of the different parts of the world, traders and pilgrims, fierce Mongols, Changpas of Tibet, the Dards etc. inhabited or visited this region, as it being lying along the silk route was highly prosperous and an important trade region. Recent research by Russian scholars found promising area of petroglyphs in Ladakh in term of originality and possible evidence of historical and cultural links between ancient artifacts of India and Siberia.