Predation of threatened fauna by native and introduced predators can drive extinction and prevent... more Predation of threatened fauna by native and introduced predators can drive extinction and prevent population recovery. Most predator management involves exclusion or culling. Evidence suggests that exclusion may have detrimental effects on a prey species' predator awareness. At the same time, culling can cause selection of control-resistant predators. There is increasing interest in harnessing evolutionary processes to drive adaptation of threatened fauna to cope, but there is limited attention on trying this from the predator direction. We need to shift the survival advantage away from predators that avoid lethal control, and go on to kill, towards those that demonstrate behaviors that reduce impact on threatened fauna. Instead of driving undesirable predator selection, could we select through management actions desirable traits to make them "less lethal" to threatened fauna? We draw on experimental research on predator aversion that suggests there may be an alternative way to mitigate the impacts of predators, while maintaining the learning opportunities of prey species. Using the case study of the invasive red fox in Australia, we propose a conceptual framework within which future research and management could occur to select for these desirable traits in predators and develop practical regimes for predator impact mitigation.
The vision of rewilding is to return ecosystems to a “natural” or “self-willed” state with trophi... more The vision of rewilding is to return ecosystems to a “natural” or “self-willed” state with trophic complexity, dispersal (and connectivity) and stochastic disturbance in place. The concept is gaining traction, particularly in Europe where significant land abandonment has taken place in recent years. However, in reality, the purest form of rewilding (Rewilding Max) is constrained by a number of context-specific factors whereby it may not be possible to restore the native species that form part of the trophic structure of the ecosystem if they are extinct (for example, mammoths, Mammuthus spp., aurochs, Bos taurus primigenius). In addition, populations/communities of native herbivores/predators may not be able to survive or be acceptable to the public in small scale rewilding projects close to areas of high human density or agricultural land. Therefore, the restoration of natural trophic complexity and disturbance regimes within rewilding projects requires careful consideration if the...
The creation of wildland, through the process of re-wilding, has great potential to address (at l... more The creation of wildland, through the process of re-wilding, has great potential to address (at least) two key challenges for conservation in the UK: (1) ongoing biodiversity loss; (2) facilitating climate change adaptation. Consequently, there is a strong argument for re-wilding and wildland to become mainstream in conservation research, policy and action in the UK. In this perspective piece, I will argue that there is a need for a re-think of our conservation approaches, and will discuss in particular the ecological arguments for re-wilding, and the key factors that are needed for it to become a major complementary component of conservation strategies.
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which... more This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Context Many Australian mammal species are highly susceptible to predation by introduced domestic... more Context Many Australian mammal species are highly susceptible to predation by introduced domestic cats (Felis catus) and European red foxes (Vulpes vulpes). These predators have caused many extinctions and have driven large distributional and population declines for many more species. The serendipitous occurrence of, and deliberate translocations of mammals to, ‘havens’ (cat- and fox-free offshore islands, and mainland fenced exclosures capable of excluding cats and foxes) has helped avoid further extinction. Aims The aim of this study was to conduct a stocktake of current island and fenced havens in Australia and assess the extent of their protection for threatened mammal taxa that are most susceptible to cat and fox predation. Methods Information was collated from diverse sources to document (1) the locations of havens and (2) the occurrence of populations of predator-susceptible threatened mammals (naturally occurring or translocated) in those havens. The list of predator-suscept...
Context Over the last 230 years, the Australian terrestrial mammal fauna has suffered a very high... more Context Over the last 230 years, the Australian terrestrial mammal fauna has suffered a very high rate of decline and extinction relative to other continents. Predation by the introduced red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and feral cat (Felis catus) is implicated in many of these extinctions, and in the ongoing decline of many extant species. Aims To assess the degree to which Australian terrestrial non-volant mammal species are susceptible at the population level to predation by the red fox and feral cat, and to allocate each species to a category of predator susceptibility. Methods We collated the available evidence and complemented this with expert opinion to categorise each Australian terrestrial non-volant mammal species (extinct and extant) into one of four classes of population-level susceptibility to introduced predators (i.e. ‘extreme’, ‘high’, ‘low’ or ‘not susceptible’). We then compared predator susceptibility with conservation status, body size and extent of arboreality; and asses...
Page 1. Introduction The influence of climate on animals occurs directly through effects on the p... more Page 1. Introduction The influence of climate on animals occurs directly through effects on the physiology of organisms (Porter et al. 2000) and indirectly through its effects on the timing and availa-bility of food (Nix 1976; Porter et al. 2000). ...
We report on the effects of broad-scale restoration treatments on the ground layer of eucalypt gr... more We report on the effects of broad-scale restoration treatments on the ground layer of eucalypt grassy woodland in south-eastern Australia. The experiment was conducted in two conservation reserves from which livestock grazing had previously been removed. Changes in biomass, species diversity, ground-cover attributes and life-form were analysed over a 4-year period in relation to the following experimental interventions: (1) reduced kangaroo density, (2) addition of coarse woody debris and (3) fire (a single burn). Reducing kangaroo density doubled total biomass in one reserve, but no effects on exotic biomass, species counts or ground cover attributes were observed. Coarse woody debris also promoted biomass, particularly exotic annual forbs, as well as plant diversity in one of the reserves. The single burn reduced biomass, but changed little else. Overall, we found the main driver of change to be the favourable growth seasons that had followed a period of drought. This resulted in ...
Managing and Designing Landscapes for Conservation, 2000
Page 1. Section 8 Ecosystems and Ecosystem Processes Page 2. 30 Ecosystems, Ecosystem Processes a... more Page 1. Section 8 Ecosystems and Ecosystem Processes Page 2. 30 Ecosystems, Ecosystem Processes and Global Change: Implications for Landscape Design Adrian D. Manning Abstract Ecosystems are dynamic in time and space and are complex and adaptive. ...
The eastern bettongBettongia gaimardi, a potoroid marsupial, has been extinct on the Australian m... more The eastern bettongBettongia gaimardi, a potoroid marsupial, has been extinct on the Australian mainland since the 1920s. Sixty adult bettongs were reintroduced from the island of Tasmania to two predator-free fenced reserves on mainland Australia. We examined baseline health parameters (body weight, haematology and biochemistry, parasites and infectious disease exposure) in a subset of 30 (13 male, 17 female) individuals at translocation and again at 12–24 months post-reintroduction. The mean body weight increased significantly post-reintroduction but there were no significant differences in body weight between the two reintroduction sites or between the sexes in response to reintroduction. Differences were evident in multiple haematological and biochemical variables post-reintroduction but there were few differences between the two reintroduced populations or between the sexes in response to reintroduction. Ectoparasite assemblages differed, with five of 13 species failing to pers...
Australia's urban landscapes offer opportunities to marry socioeconomic and biodiversity conserva... more Australia's urban landscapes offer opportunities to marry socioeconomic and biodiversity conservation objectives. Yet, information is needed on what urban landscape and habitat features are important for wildlife. In this paper, we draw together our research from southeastern Australia to describe key lessons for biodiversity-sensitive cities and towns. Lesson 1: The effects of urbanisation on wildlife extend into adjacent habitats. We recommend retaining large, undisturbed areas of habitat away from development, avoiding intensive development adjacent to important conservation areas, encouraging cat containment. These lessons provide an evidence-base for implementing conservation and management actions to improve the capacity of our cities and towns to support a diverse and abundant biota.
Reintroductions are used to re-establish populations of species within their indigenous range, bu... more Reintroductions are used to re-establish populations of species within their indigenous range, but their outcomes are variable. A key decision when developing a reintroduction strategy is whether to include a temporary period of confinement prior to release. Pre-release confinement is primarily used for the purpose of quarantine or as a delayed-release tactic to influence the performance or behaviour of founders post-release. A common difference between these approaches is that quarantine tends to be conducted in ex situ captivity, whereas delayed releases tend to involve in situ confinement at the release site. Although these practices are commonly viewed independently, it may be possible for a single confinement period to be used for both purposes. We tested whether temporarily holding wild eastern bettongsBettongia gaimardiin ex situ captivity for 95–345 days prior to release (delayed release) influenced their body mass, pouch occupancy or survival during the first 1.5 years post...
ABSTRACT Global population growth and associated urban development are having profound effects on... more ABSTRACT Global population growth and associated urban development are having profound effects on biodiversity. Two major outcomes of expanding development that affect wildlife are light and noise pollution. In this paper, we review literature reporting the effects of light and noise on biodiversity, and assess implications for conservation planning in Australia. Our results clearly indicate that light and noise pollution have the potential to affect the physiology, behaviour and reproduction of a range of animal taxa. Types of effects include changes in foraging and reproductive behaviours, reduction in animal fitness, increased risk of predation and reduced reproductive success. These could have flow-on consequences at the population and ecosystem levels. We found a significant gap in knowledge of the impact of these pollutants on Australian fauna. To reduce the effect of light and noise pollution, there needs to be careful planning of urban areas in relation to protected areas, and for biodiversity more generally. Potential measures include strategically planning the types of development and associated human activities adjacent to protected areas, and the use of shields and barriers, such as covers for lights or the use of dense native vegetation screens, while still allowing movement of animals. Changes in government standards and regulations could also help to reduce the impacts of light and noise pollution.
ABSTRACT Summary 1. Translocation is a popular conservation tool, but the outcomes are variable. ... more ABSTRACT Summary 1. Translocation is a popular conservation tool, but the outcomes are variable. Many tactics can be used to improve the probability of success, but a comprehensive summary of these does not exist. This increases the risk that valuable tactics will be overlooked, and inhibits effective communication. 2. We assess the diversity of ‘translocation tactics’ used in mammal and bird translocations, by reviewing the IUCN/SSC Guidelines for Re-introduction and other Conservation Translocations (2013), 195 peerreviewed articles, and 73 case-studies from the IUCN/SSC Global Re-introduction Perspectives Series (Soorae 2008, 2010, 2011). 3. We recorded descriptions of every technique used to influence the post-release performance of translocated wildlife. We developed the Translocation Tactics Classification System (TTCS) which defines a collection of 30 tactics and organize them into an ecologically-relevant framework. We also assess the occurrence of tactics within the Guidelines, the primary literature, and the case-studies to evaluate how tactics are communicated within these mediums. 4. Our results indicate that the Guidelines are a valuable resource, but do not exhaustively cover tactics, and that detailed methodological accounts are rarely made publically accessible. This highlights the need to develop context-specific resources to support the Guidelines, and to develop and exploit mediums that facilitate recording of methodological detail, the tactical rationale behind the design, and evaluations of effectiveness. Although some forms of grey-literature address this issue, the general lack of information limits the ability to investigate the relationship between tactics and translocation success. 5. Synthesis and applications. The Translocation Tactics Classification System (TTCS) provides a checklist which ensures that the full diversity of tactics are considered when developing translocation processes. Standardizing the communication of tactics, and encouraging detailed accounts of applied methodologies to be recorded, along with the tactical reasoning behind the design, will provide operational models and the data required to conduct broad-scale meta-analyses.
Urban expansion significantly alters fringe environments often with undesirable impacts on biodiv... more Urban expansion significantly alters fringe environments often with undesirable impacts on biodiversity. Consequently, there is a need to define clear conservation objectives for areas subject to urban encroachment. Urban fringe development is a highly dynamic process, both spatially and temporally, but few studies are equipped to examine its temporal effects on biota. We aimed to explore the impacts of urban encroachment on avifauna through space and time. We used records from an extensive 14-year monitoring program undertaken in temperate woodland. We fitted hierarchical generalised linear models to assess individual species responses to the distance from monitoring sites to the urban boundary, and the temporal rate of change in this distance through time. We used factorial analysis on mixed data to examine trait group responses to these predictors. Our results indicated that the occurrence of approximately half of the study region's avifauna is strongly linked to the proximity of their habitat to the urban fringe, but that the impact of urban fringe development on the occurrence of some species changed through time. We identified several species of conservation concern that respond negatively to large annual increases in urban fringe development, irrespective of its proximity to suitable habitat. Species responses to urban proximity were linked to life history traits, with small, migratory, woodland-dependent species that rely on midand upper-canopy structures, clearly disadvantaged by urban environments. Our findings demonstrate the breadth of species responses to urban encroachment over much larger distances than is typically investigated in urban ecological studies. We identify guilds vulnerable to the impacts of urban fringe development, and therefore in need of ecologically sensitive urban design. We argue that future urban expansion toward important fringe habitats will need to be planned strategically through space and time.
Predation of threatened fauna by native and introduced predators can drive extinction and prevent... more Predation of threatened fauna by native and introduced predators can drive extinction and prevent population recovery. Most predator management involves exclusion or culling. Evidence suggests that exclusion may have detrimental effects on a prey species' predator awareness. At the same time, culling can cause selection of control-resistant predators. There is increasing interest in harnessing evolutionary processes to drive adaptation of threatened fauna to cope, but there is limited attention on trying this from the predator direction. We need to shift the survival advantage away from predators that avoid lethal control, and go on to kill, towards those that demonstrate behaviors that reduce impact on threatened fauna. Instead of driving undesirable predator selection, could we select through management actions desirable traits to make them "less lethal" to threatened fauna? We draw on experimental research on predator aversion that suggests there may be an alternative way to mitigate the impacts of predators, while maintaining the learning opportunities of prey species. Using the case study of the invasive red fox in Australia, we propose a conceptual framework within which future research and management could occur to select for these desirable traits in predators and develop practical regimes for predator impact mitigation.
The vision of rewilding is to return ecosystems to a “natural” or “self-willed” state with trophi... more The vision of rewilding is to return ecosystems to a “natural” or “self-willed” state with trophic complexity, dispersal (and connectivity) and stochastic disturbance in place. The concept is gaining traction, particularly in Europe where significant land abandonment has taken place in recent years. However, in reality, the purest form of rewilding (Rewilding Max) is constrained by a number of context-specific factors whereby it may not be possible to restore the native species that form part of the trophic structure of the ecosystem if they are extinct (for example, mammoths, Mammuthus spp., aurochs, Bos taurus primigenius). In addition, populations/communities of native herbivores/predators may not be able to survive or be acceptable to the public in small scale rewilding projects close to areas of high human density or agricultural land. Therefore, the restoration of natural trophic complexity and disturbance regimes within rewilding projects requires careful consideration if the...
The creation of wildland, through the process of re-wilding, has great potential to address (at l... more The creation of wildland, through the process of re-wilding, has great potential to address (at least) two key challenges for conservation in the UK: (1) ongoing biodiversity loss; (2) facilitating climate change adaptation. Consequently, there is a strong argument for re-wilding and wildland to become mainstream in conservation research, policy and action in the UK. In this perspective piece, I will argue that there is a need for a re-think of our conservation approaches, and will discuss in particular the ecological arguments for re-wilding, and the key factors that are needed for it to become a major complementary component of conservation strategies.
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which... more This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Context Many Australian mammal species are highly susceptible to predation by introduced domestic... more Context Many Australian mammal species are highly susceptible to predation by introduced domestic cats (Felis catus) and European red foxes (Vulpes vulpes). These predators have caused many extinctions and have driven large distributional and population declines for many more species. The serendipitous occurrence of, and deliberate translocations of mammals to, ‘havens’ (cat- and fox-free offshore islands, and mainland fenced exclosures capable of excluding cats and foxes) has helped avoid further extinction. Aims The aim of this study was to conduct a stocktake of current island and fenced havens in Australia and assess the extent of their protection for threatened mammal taxa that are most susceptible to cat and fox predation. Methods Information was collated from diverse sources to document (1) the locations of havens and (2) the occurrence of populations of predator-susceptible threatened mammals (naturally occurring or translocated) in those havens. The list of predator-suscept...
Context Over the last 230 years, the Australian terrestrial mammal fauna has suffered a very high... more Context Over the last 230 years, the Australian terrestrial mammal fauna has suffered a very high rate of decline and extinction relative to other continents. Predation by the introduced red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and feral cat (Felis catus) is implicated in many of these extinctions, and in the ongoing decline of many extant species. Aims To assess the degree to which Australian terrestrial non-volant mammal species are susceptible at the population level to predation by the red fox and feral cat, and to allocate each species to a category of predator susceptibility. Methods We collated the available evidence and complemented this with expert opinion to categorise each Australian terrestrial non-volant mammal species (extinct and extant) into one of four classes of population-level susceptibility to introduced predators (i.e. ‘extreme’, ‘high’, ‘low’ or ‘not susceptible’). We then compared predator susceptibility with conservation status, body size and extent of arboreality; and asses...
Page 1. Introduction The influence of climate on animals occurs directly through effects on the p... more Page 1. Introduction The influence of climate on animals occurs directly through effects on the physiology of organisms (Porter et al. 2000) and indirectly through its effects on the timing and availa-bility of food (Nix 1976; Porter et al. 2000). ...
We report on the effects of broad-scale restoration treatments on the ground layer of eucalypt gr... more We report on the effects of broad-scale restoration treatments on the ground layer of eucalypt grassy woodland in south-eastern Australia. The experiment was conducted in two conservation reserves from which livestock grazing had previously been removed. Changes in biomass, species diversity, ground-cover attributes and life-form were analysed over a 4-year period in relation to the following experimental interventions: (1) reduced kangaroo density, (2) addition of coarse woody debris and (3) fire (a single burn). Reducing kangaroo density doubled total biomass in one reserve, but no effects on exotic biomass, species counts or ground cover attributes were observed. Coarse woody debris also promoted biomass, particularly exotic annual forbs, as well as plant diversity in one of the reserves. The single burn reduced biomass, but changed little else. Overall, we found the main driver of change to be the favourable growth seasons that had followed a period of drought. This resulted in ...
Managing and Designing Landscapes for Conservation, 2000
Page 1. Section 8 Ecosystems and Ecosystem Processes Page 2. 30 Ecosystems, Ecosystem Processes a... more Page 1. Section 8 Ecosystems and Ecosystem Processes Page 2. 30 Ecosystems, Ecosystem Processes and Global Change: Implications for Landscape Design Adrian D. Manning Abstract Ecosystems are dynamic in time and space and are complex and adaptive. ...
The eastern bettongBettongia gaimardi, a potoroid marsupial, has been extinct on the Australian m... more The eastern bettongBettongia gaimardi, a potoroid marsupial, has been extinct on the Australian mainland since the 1920s. Sixty adult bettongs were reintroduced from the island of Tasmania to two predator-free fenced reserves on mainland Australia. We examined baseline health parameters (body weight, haematology and biochemistry, parasites and infectious disease exposure) in a subset of 30 (13 male, 17 female) individuals at translocation and again at 12–24 months post-reintroduction. The mean body weight increased significantly post-reintroduction but there were no significant differences in body weight between the two reintroduction sites or between the sexes in response to reintroduction. Differences were evident in multiple haematological and biochemical variables post-reintroduction but there were few differences between the two reintroduced populations or between the sexes in response to reintroduction. Ectoparasite assemblages differed, with five of 13 species failing to pers...
Australia's urban landscapes offer opportunities to marry socioeconomic and biodiversity conserva... more Australia's urban landscapes offer opportunities to marry socioeconomic and biodiversity conservation objectives. Yet, information is needed on what urban landscape and habitat features are important for wildlife. In this paper, we draw together our research from southeastern Australia to describe key lessons for biodiversity-sensitive cities and towns. Lesson 1: The effects of urbanisation on wildlife extend into adjacent habitats. We recommend retaining large, undisturbed areas of habitat away from development, avoiding intensive development adjacent to important conservation areas, encouraging cat containment. These lessons provide an evidence-base for implementing conservation and management actions to improve the capacity of our cities and towns to support a diverse and abundant biota.
Reintroductions are used to re-establish populations of species within their indigenous range, bu... more Reintroductions are used to re-establish populations of species within their indigenous range, but their outcomes are variable. A key decision when developing a reintroduction strategy is whether to include a temporary period of confinement prior to release. Pre-release confinement is primarily used for the purpose of quarantine or as a delayed-release tactic to influence the performance or behaviour of founders post-release. A common difference between these approaches is that quarantine tends to be conducted in ex situ captivity, whereas delayed releases tend to involve in situ confinement at the release site. Although these practices are commonly viewed independently, it may be possible for a single confinement period to be used for both purposes. We tested whether temporarily holding wild eastern bettongsBettongia gaimardiin ex situ captivity for 95–345 days prior to release (delayed release) influenced their body mass, pouch occupancy or survival during the first 1.5 years post...
ABSTRACT Global population growth and associated urban development are having profound effects on... more ABSTRACT Global population growth and associated urban development are having profound effects on biodiversity. Two major outcomes of expanding development that affect wildlife are light and noise pollution. In this paper, we review literature reporting the effects of light and noise on biodiversity, and assess implications for conservation planning in Australia. Our results clearly indicate that light and noise pollution have the potential to affect the physiology, behaviour and reproduction of a range of animal taxa. Types of effects include changes in foraging and reproductive behaviours, reduction in animal fitness, increased risk of predation and reduced reproductive success. These could have flow-on consequences at the population and ecosystem levels. We found a significant gap in knowledge of the impact of these pollutants on Australian fauna. To reduce the effect of light and noise pollution, there needs to be careful planning of urban areas in relation to protected areas, and for biodiversity more generally. Potential measures include strategically planning the types of development and associated human activities adjacent to protected areas, and the use of shields and barriers, such as covers for lights or the use of dense native vegetation screens, while still allowing movement of animals. Changes in government standards and regulations could also help to reduce the impacts of light and noise pollution.
ABSTRACT Summary 1. Translocation is a popular conservation tool, but the outcomes are variable. ... more ABSTRACT Summary 1. Translocation is a popular conservation tool, but the outcomes are variable. Many tactics can be used to improve the probability of success, but a comprehensive summary of these does not exist. This increases the risk that valuable tactics will be overlooked, and inhibits effective communication. 2. We assess the diversity of ‘translocation tactics’ used in mammal and bird translocations, by reviewing the IUCN/SSC Guidelines for Re-introduction and other Conservation Translocations (2013), 195 peerreviewed articles, and 73 case-studies from the IUCN/SSC Global Re-introduction Perspectives Series (Soorae 2008, 2010, 2011). 3. We recorded descriptions of every technique used to influence the post-release performance of translocated wildlife. We developed the Translocation Tactics Classification System (TTCS) which defines a collection of 30 tactics and organize them into an ecologically-relevant framework. We also assess the occurrence of tactics within the Guidelines, the primary literature, and the case-studies to evaluate how tactics are communicated within these mediums. 4. Our results indicate that the Guidelines are a valuable resource, but do not exhaustively cover tactics, and that detailed methodological accounts are rarely made publically accessible. This highlights the need to develop context-specific resources to support the Guidelines, and to develop and exploit mediums that facilitate recording of methodological detail, the tactical rationale behind the design, and evaluations of effectiveness. Although some forms of grey-literature address this issue, the general lack of information limits the ability to investigate the relationship between tactics and translocation success. 5. Synthesis and applications. The Translocation Tactics Classification System (TTCS) provides a checklist which ensures that the full diversity of tactics are considered when developing translocation processes. Standardizing the communication of tactics, and encouraging detailed accounts of applied methodologies to be recorded, along with the tactical reasoning behind the design, will provide operational models and the data required to conduct broad-scale meta-analyses.
Urban expansion significantly alters fringe environments often with undesirable impacts on biodiv... more Urban expansion significantly alters fringe environments often with undesirable impacts on biodiversity. Consequently, there is a need to define clear conservation objectives for areas subject to urban encroachment. Urban fringe development is a highly dynamic process, both spatially and temporally, but few studies are equipped to examine its temporal effects on biota. We aimed to explore the impacts of urban encroachment on avifauna through space and time. We used records from an extensive 14-year monitoring program undertaken in temperate woodland. We fitted hierarchical generalised linear models to assess individual species responses to the distance from monitoring sites to the urban boundary, and the temporal rate of change in this distance through time. We used factorial analysis on mixed data to examine trait group responses to these predictors. Our results indicated that the occurrence of approximately half of the study region's avifauna is strongly linked to the proximity of their habitat to the urban fringe, but that the impact of urban fringe development on the occurrence of some species changed through time. We identified several species of conservation concern that respond negatively to large annual increases in urban fringe development, irrespective of its proximity to suitable habitat. Species responses to urban proximity were linked to life history traits, with small, migratory, woodland-dependent species that rely on midand upper-canopy structures, clearly disadvantaged by urban environments. Our findings demonstrate the breadth of species responses to urban encroachment over much larger distances than is typically investigated in urban ecological studies. We identify guilds vulnerable to the impacts of urban fringe development, and therefore in need of ecologically sensitive urban design. We argue that future urban expansion toward important fringe habitats will need to be planned strategically through space and time.
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