Flood mitigation is a strategy that is growing in importance across Europe. This growth correspon... more Flood mitigation is a strategy that is growing in importance across Europe. This growth corresponds with an increasing emphasis on the need to learn to live with floods and make space for water. Flood mitigation measures aim at reducing the likelihood and magnitude of flooding and complement flood defenses. They are being put in place through the implementation of actions that accommodate (rather than resist) water, such as natural flood management or adapted housing. The strategy has gained momentum over the past 20 years in an effort to improve the sustainability of flood risk management (FRM) and facilitate the diversification of FRM in the pursuit of societal resilience to flooding. Simultaneously, it is increasingly argued that adaptive forms of governance are best placed to address the uncertainty and complexity associated with social-ecological systems responding to environmental challenges, such as flooding. However, there have been few attempts to examine the extent to which current flood risk governance, and flood mitigation specifically, reflect these aspired forms of adaptive governance. Drawing from EU research into flood risk governance, conducted within the STAR-FLOOD project, we examine the governance of flood mitigation in six European countries: Belgium, England, France, the Netherlands, Poland, and Sweden. Using in-depth policy and legal analysis, as well as interviews with key actors, the governance and implementation of flood mitigation in these countries is evaluated from the normative viewpoint of whether, and to what extent, it can be characterized as adaptive governance. We identify five criteria of adaptive governance based on a comprehensive literature review and apply these to each country to determine the " distance " between current governance arrangements and adaptive governance. In conclusion, the flood mitigation strategy provides various opportunities for actors to further pursue forms of adaptive governance. The extent to which the mitigation strategy is capable of doing so varies across countries, however, and its role in stimulating adaptive governance was found to be strongest in Belgium and England.
European countries face increasing flood risks because of urbanization, increase of exposure and ... more European countries face increasing flood risks because of urbanization, increase of exposure and damage potential, and the effects of climate change. In literature and in practice, it is argued that a diversification of strategies for flood risk management (FRM), including flood risk prevention (through proactive spatial planning), flood defense, flood risk mitigation, flood preparation, and flood recovery, makes countries more flood resilient. Although this thesis is plausible, it should still be empirically scrutinized. We aim to do this. Drawing on existing literature we operationalize the notion of " flood resilience " into three capacities: capacity to resist; capacity to absorb and recover; and capacity to transform and adapt. Based on findings from the EU FP7 project STAR-FLOOD, we explore the degree of diversification of FRM strategies and related flood risk governance arrangements at the national level in Belgium, England, France, the Netherlands, Poland, and Sweden, as well as these countries' achievement in terms of the three capacities. We found that the Netherlands and to a lesser extent Belgium have a strong capacity to resist, France a strong capacity to absorb and recover, and especially England a high capacity to transform and adapt. Having a diverse portfolio of FRM strategies in place may be conducive to high achievements related to the capacities to absorb/recover and to transform and adapt. Hence, we conclude that diversification of FRM strategies contributes to resilience. However, the diversification thesis should be nuanced in the sense that there are different ways to be resilient. First, the three capacities imply different rationales and normative starting points for flood risk governance, the choice between which is inherently political. Second, we found trade-offs between the three capacities, e.g., being resistant seems to lower the possibility to be absorbent. Third, to explain countries' achievements in terms of resilience, the strategies' feasibility in specific physical circumstances and their fit in existing institutional contexts (appropriateness), as well as the establishment of links between strategies, through bridging mechanisms, have also been shown to be crucial factors. We provide much needed reflection on the implications of this diagnosis for governments, private parties, and citizens who want to increase flood resilience.
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 2013
ABSTRACT Reading the available evidence on the implementation of the European Water Framework Dir... more ABSTRACT Reading the available evidence on the implementation of the European Water Framework Directive (WFD), one gets the impression that some countries anticipate implementation problems by starting off pragmatically and with relatively low ambitions, while others make a quick and ambitious start and tend to slow down in later phases of the process. Inspired by Lundqvist's classical study of air pollution policy in the USA and Sweden, we assess the importance of some general characteristics of the respective political-institutional systems to explain differences in WFD implementation in four EU countries: Denmark, France, England/Wales and the Netherlands. We conclude, among other things, that visibility of the policy process, accountability of politicians and policy makers vis-à-vis their stakeholders and the EU, division of responsibilities for policy formulation vs. implementation and the involvement of the public explain the level of ambition in EU implementation to a considerable extent. Thus, the Lundqvist variables turn out to be useful for both classifying and explaining differences in EU implementation processes.
Our paper focuses on some new steps Flanders has taken with regard to the evaluation of environme... more Our paper focuses on some new steps Flanders has taken with regard to the evaluation of environmental policy. In its scientific underpinning of environmental policies the Flemish government hitherto mainly invested in the assessment and evaluation of the environmental quality itself (product evaluation), by gathering facts and figures on the state of the environment. There is a growing need, however, for a better understanding of the mechanisms of success and failure of policy measures. In other words one looks for more evidence on the actual functioning of environmental policies. With a limited tradition on policy evaluation, though, both among scientists and government representatives, Flanders needs to build up its skills and capacities in policy evaluation, particularly in the environmental domain. The broadening of the evaluation scope from mere physical parameters onto processes of policy making, policy implementation et cetera, urges for the development of knowledge and skills in process evaluation on the one hand and its almost simultaneous application on the other. A network of expertise is needed. The newly established Centre of Expertise on Environmental Policy Sciences (CEEPS) is anticipated to play a key role in the process of policy learning. We argue that the latter implies the simultaneous development of theoretical frameworks, methodological approaches and empirical testing, while at the same time we need to prove its actual policy relevance.
Het Natuurrapport geeft een systematische beschrijving van de toestand van soorten en biotopen, v... more Het Natuurrapport geeft een systematische beschrijving van de toestand van soorten en biotopen, van verstoringen en van mogelijkheden voor bescherming en herstel op nationaal en internationaal vlak. De instrumentaria die worden ingezet voor natuur-, bos-en waterbeleid vertonen heel wat onderlinge raakvlakken. Wat de combinatie van kennis, beleidsintenties en planningsinstrumenten samen opleveren, blijft echter de vraag. We trachten dit te toetsen met een concreet voorbeeld.
Deze bijdrage aan het themanummer geeft een algemene beschouwing op de ingrijpende veranderingen ... more Deze bijdrage aan het themanummer geeft een algemene beschouwing op de ingrijpende veranderingen die het Vlaamse waterbeleid de afgelopen jaren heeft doorgemaakt. Gezien het onderwerp van de studiedag (waterbeleid en participatie) wordt stilgestaan bij de invloed van de beleidsvernieuwing op de interactie tussen overheid en samenleving. Verder worden concrete implicaties van participatieve beleidsvorming op de beleidspraktijk in beeld gebracht. Er wordt geëindigd met een oproep om de nieuwe instituties in het waterbeleid te blijven steunen ondanks de 'trial and error' die gepaard gaat met participatieve beleidsvorming.
Dit hoofdstuk biedt een analyse en beoordeling van enkele belangrijke elementen van het proces va... more Dit hoofdstuk biedt een analyse en beoordeling van enkele belangrijke elementen van het proces van milieuvergunningverlening in Vlaanderen. De aandacht wordt geconcentreerd op het proces van voorbereiding, ambtelijk overleg en adviesverlening dat voorafgaat aan het (al dan niet) verlenen van een milieuvergunning aan bedrijven die bedrijfsafvalwater willen lozen.
03 275 55 28 -fax: 03 275 57 93 -gsm: 0477 93 65 02 [email protected] -www.ua.ac.be/ann.crabbe ... more 03 275 55 28 -fax: 03 275 57 93 -gsm: 0477 93 65 02 [email protected] -www.ua.ac.be/ann.crabbe De ontwikkeling van dit proefschrift werd mede mogelijk gemaakt door de steun van de Vlaamse Regering die, in het kader van het Steunpunt Milieubeleidswetenschappen (2001-2006), onderzoek financierde naar o.m. de bekken-en de deelbekkenwerking (project UIA PSW A) en de totstandkoming van het decreet integraal waterbeleid (project UIA PSW B).
Onderzoeksrapport in opdracht van de afdeling Haven- en Waterbeleid van het departement Mobilitei... more Onderzoeksrapport in opdracht van de afdeling Haven- en Waterbeleid van het departement Mobiliteit en Openbare Werken van de Vlaamse overheid
Flood mitigation is a strategy that is growing in importance across Europe. This growth correspon... more Flood mitigation is a strategy that is growing in importance across Europe. This growth corresponds with an increasing emphasis on the need to learn to live with floods and make space for water. Flood mitigation measures aim at reducing the likelihood and magnitude of flooding and complement flood defenses. They are being put in place through the implementation of actions that accommodate (rather than resist) water, such as natural flood management or adapted housing. The strategy has gained momentum over the past 20 years in an effort to improve the sustainability of flood risk management (FRM) and facilitate the diversification of FRM in the pursuit of societal resilience to flooding. Simultaneously, it is increasingly argued that adaptive forms of governance are best placed to address the uncertainty and complexity associated with social-ecological systems responding to environmental challenges, such as flooding. However, there have been few attempts to examine the extent to which current flood risk governance, and flood mitigation specifically, reflect these aspired forms of adaptive governance. Drawing from EU research into flood risk governance, conducted within the STAR-FLOOD project, we examine the governance of flood mitigation in six European countries: Belgium, England, France, the Netherlands, Poland, and Sweden. Using in-depth policy and legal analysis, as well as interviews with key actors, the governance and implementation of flood mitigation in these countries is evaluated from the normative viewpoint of whether, and to what extent, it can be characterized as adaptive governance. We identify five criteria of adaptive governance based on a comprehensive literature review and apply these to each country to determine the " distance " between current governance arrangements and adaptive governance. In conclusion, the flood mitigation strategy provides various opportunities for actors to further pursue forms of adaptive governance. The extent to which the mitigation strategy is capable of doing so varies across countries, however, and its role in stimulating adaptive governance was found to be strongest in Belgium and England.
European countries face increasing flood risks because of urbanization, increase of exposure and ... more European countries face increasing flood risks because of urbanization, increase of exposure and damage potential, and the effects of climate change. In literature and in practice, it is argued that a diversification of strategies for flood risk management (FRM), including flood risk prevention (through proactive spatial planning), flood defense, flood risk mitigation, flood preparation, and flood recovery, makes countries more flood resilient. Although this thesis is plausible, it should still be empirically scrutinized. We aim to do this. Drawing on existing literature we operationalize the notion of " flood resilience " into three capacities: capacity to resist; capacity to absorb and recover; and capacity to transform and adapt. Based on findings from the EU FP7 project STAR-FLOOD, we explore the degree of diversification of FRM strategies and related flood risk governance arrangements at the national level in Belgium, England, France, the Netherlands, Poland, and Sweden, as well as these countries' achievement in terms of the three capacities. We found that the Netherlands and to a lesser extent Belgium have a strong capacity to resist, France a strong capacity to absorb and recover, and especially England a high capacity to transform and adapt. Having a diverse portfolio of FRM strategies in place may be conducive to high achievements related to the capacities to absorb/recover and to transform and adapt. Hence, we conclude that diversification of FRM strategies contributes to resilience. However, the diversification thesis should be nuanced in the sense that there are different ways to be resilient. First, the three capacities imply different rationales and normative starting points for flood risk governance, the choice between which is inherently political. Second, we found trade-offs between the three capacities, e.g., being resistant seems to lower the possibility to be absorbent. Third, to explain countries' achievements in terms of resilience, the strategies' feasibility in specific physical circumstances and their fit in existing institutional contexts (appropriateness), as well as the establishment of links between strategies, through bridging mechanisms, have also been shown to be crucial factors. We provide much needed reflection on the implications of this diagnosis for governments, private parties, and citizens who want to increase flood resilience.
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 2013
ABSTRACT Reading the available evidence on the implementation of the European Water Framework Dir... more ABSTRACT Reading the available evidence on the implementation of the European Water Framework Directive (WFD), one gets the impression that some countries anticipate implementation problems by starting off pragmatically and with relatively low ambitions, while others make a quick and ambitious start and tend to slow down in later phases of the process. Inspired by Lundqvist's classical study of air pollution policy in the USA and Sweden, we assess the importance of some general characteristics of the respective political-institutional systems to explain differences in WFD implementation in four EU countries: Denmark, France, England/Wales and the Netherlands. We conclude, among other things, that visibility of the policy process, accountability of politicians and policy makers vis-à-vis their stakeholders and the EU, division of responsibilities for policy formulation vs. implementation and the involvement of the public explain the level of ambition in EU implementation to a considerable extent. Thus, the Lundqvist variables turn out to be useful for both classifying and explaining differences in EU implementation processes.
Our paper focuses on some new steps Flanders has taken with regard to the evaluation of environme... more Our paper focuses on some new steps Flanders has taken with regard to the evaluation of environmental policy. In its scientific underpinning of environmental policies the Flemish government hitherto mainly invested in the assessment and evaluation of the environmental quality itself (product evaluation), by gathering facts and figures on the state of the environment. There is a growing need, however, for a better understanding of the mechanisms of success and failure of policy measures. In other words one looks for more evidence on the actual functioning of environmental policies. With a limited tradition on policy evaluation, though, both among scientists and government representatives, Flanders needs to build up its skills and capacities in policy evaluation, particularly in the environmental domain. The broadening of the evaluation scope from mere physical parameters onto processes of policy making, policy implementation et cetera, urges for the development of knowledge and skills in process evaluation on the one hand and its almost simultaneous application on the other. A network of expertise is needed. The newly established Centre of Expertise on Environmental Policy Sciences (CEEPS) is anticipated to play a key role in the process of policy learning. We argue that the latter implies the simultaneous development of theoretical frameworks, methodological approaches and empirical testing, while at the same time we need to prove its actual policy relevance.
Het Natuurrapport geeft een systematische beschrijving van de toestand van soorten en biotopen, v... more Het Natuurrapport geeft een systematische beschrijving van de toestand van soorten en biotopen, van verstoringen en van mogelijkheden voor bescherming en herstel op nationaal en internationaal vlak. De instrumentaria die worden ingezet voor natuur-, bos-en waterbeleid vertonen heel wat onderlinge raakvlakken. Wat de combinatie van kennis, beleidsintenties en planningsinstrumenten samen opleveren, blijft echter de vraag. We trachten dit te toetsen met een concreet voorbeeld.
Deze bijdrage aan het themanummer geeft een algemene beschouwing op de ingrijpende veranderingen ... more Deze bijdrage aan het themanummer geeft een algemene beschouwing op de ingrijpende veranderingen die het Vlaamse waterbeleid de afgelopen jaren heeft doorgemaakt. Gezien het onderwerp van de studiedag (waterbeleid en participatie) wordt stilgestaan bij de invloed van de beleidsvernieuwing op de interactie tussen overheid en samenleving. Verder worden concrete implicaties van participatieve beleidsvorming op de beleidspraktijk in beeld gebracht. Er wordt geëindigd met een oproep om de nieuwe instituties in het waterbeleid te blijven steunen ondanks de 'trial and error' die gepaard gaat met participatieve beleidsvorming.
Dit hoofdstuk biedt een analyse en beoordeling van enkele belangrijke elementen van het proces va... more Dit hoofdstuk biedt een analyse en beoordeling van enkele belangrijke elementen van het proces van milieuvergunningverlening in Vlaanderen. De aandacht wordt geconcentreerd op het proces van voorbereiding, ambtelijk overleg en adviesverlening dat voorafgaat aan het (al dan niet) verlenen van een milieuvergunning aan bedrijven die bedrijfsafvalwater willen lozen.
03 275 55 28 -fax: 03 275 57 93 -gsm: 0477 93 65 02 [email protected] -www.ua.ac.be/ann.crabbe ... more 03 275 55 28 -fax: 03 275 57 93 -gsm: 0477 93 65 02 [email protected] -www.ua.ac.be/ann.crabbe De ontwikkeling van dit proefschrift werd mede mogelijk gemaakt door de steun van de Vlaamse Regering die, in het kader van het Steunpunt Milieubeleidswetenschappen (2001-2006), onderzoek financierde naar o.m. de bekken-en de deelbekkenwerking (project UIA PSW A) en de totstandkoming van het decreet integraal waterbeleid (project UIA PSW B).
Onderzoeksrapport in opdracht van de afdeling Haven- en Waterbeleid van het departement Mobilitei... more Onderzoeksrapport in opdracht van de afdeling Haven- en Waterbeleid van het departement Mobiliteit en Openbare Werken van de Vlaamse overheid
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