How Effective are Efficiency Studies?: An Evaluation in the Context of Cognitive Behavioral Thera... more How Effective are Efficiency Studies?: An Evaluation in the Context of Cognitive Behavioral Therapies The consensus view is that the main goal of a psychotherapy approach is to make changes in dysfunctional attitudes and behaviors. Therapeutic effectiveness, which is defined as "the establishment of causality between the intervention and the emergent changes in target behavior, symptom, or disorder," has been examined via studies of therapeutic effectiveness. In this review, we aimed to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy and/or effectiveness studies in terms of their methods, results, and approaches. In addition, we wanted to discuss debates and criticism about these studies in the context of Cognitive and Behavioral Therapy (CBT). In this context, the definition of therapeutic effectiveness has been given and then, the measuring methods have been discussed within the framework of effectiveness, efficacy, and meta-analysis studies. Differences in the point of views regarding the results of effectiveness studies have also been examined. The place of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy has been discussed in the context of mentioned topics. In the conclusion part, the numbers of questions that are thought to contribute to an effective interpretation for therapeutic effectiveness have been proposed. In this context, it is a fact that Cognitive and Behavioral Therapy, which is one of therapies most widely used, has been determined as effective on depression and anxiety disorder. The CBT's, prevalence, being a structured method, and studies about its impact on therapeutic change strengthens the evidence of its effectiveness.
Travmatik olayların ardından yardım çalışmalarında yer alan profesyonel ve gönüllülerde travmanın... more Travmatik olayların ardından yardım çalışmalarında yer alan profesyonel ve gönüllülerde travmanın dolaylı etkisi nedeniyle bazı olumsuz psikolojik sonuçlar görülme olasılığı bulunmaktadır. Bu alanda gerçekleştirilen çalışmalar, travmaya dolaylı olarak maruz kalanların doğrudan maruz kalanlara benzer stres tepkileri geliştirdiklerini, “İkincil Travmatik Stres” kavramıyla ifade edilen bu tepkilerin “Travma Sonrası Stres Bozukluğu”yla benzerlikler taşıdığını ortaya koymaktadır. Yardım çalışanlarında olumsuz psikolojik sonuçlarla ilişkili olan stres kaynakları, olayın/görevin özellikleriyle ilişkili olabileceği gibi yapılan mesleğe özgü unsurlar da taşıyabilmekte, bireysel ve mesleki bazı özellikler ikincil travmatik stres tepkilerini yordamaktadır. Dolayısıyla, yardım çalışanlarında görülebilecek travma sonrası stres tepkilerine kaynak oluşturan unsurları, bu tepkilerin oluşumunda rol oynayan risk etmenleri ve koruyucu unsurları belirleme, bu tepkilerin önlenmesi ve/veya stres tepkileriyle başa çıkmaya yardımcı olan müdahalelere bilimsel kanıt sağlama açısından önem taşımaktadır. Bu gözden geçirme çalışmasında, ikincil travmatik stres olgusu, ilişkili değişkenler ve önleyici stratejiler konusunda yapılmış bilimsel araştırma bulguları ve alan çalışmaları çerçevesinde aktarılmaktadır. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Traumatic events may cause negative psychological reactions on relief workers through indirect effects of trauma. Research reveal that individuals who are indirectly exposed to trauma develop similar stress responses to those directly exposed, and these responses, called “Secondary Traumatic Stress” have some common characteristics with “posttraumatic stress” symptomatology. Sources of stress in relief work may be related with the features of the event / duty as well as with the job, and individual and occupational factors may be predictive of posttraumatic symptoms. Therefore, it is important to identify the stressors and the strengths and weaknesses of relief workers so as to develop evidence based intervention strategies. In this review, secondary traumatic stress phenomenon is presented within the frame of reactions and related variables in relief workers that can be seen in relief workers and associated variables with secondary traumatic stress reactions.
The consensus view seems to be that the main goal of a psychotherapy approach is to make changes ... more The consensus view seems to be that the main goal of a psychotherapy approach is to make changes in dysfunctional attitudes and behaviors. Therapeutic effectiveness which is defined as "the establishment of causality between the intervention and the emergent changes in target behavior, symptom, or disorder" has been examined via studies of therapeutic effectiveness. In this review, it is aimed to evaluate therapeutic efficacy and/or effectiveness studies in terms of their methods, results and approaches and also to discuss debates and critics about these studies in the context of Cognitive and Behavioral therapy. In this context, first of all, the definition of therapeutic effectiveness has been given, and then, measuring methods have been discussed within the framework of effectiveness, efficacy, and meta-analysis studies. Differences in the point of views regarding the results of effectiveness studies have been examined. The place of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy has been discussed in the context of mentioned topics. In the conclusion part, number of questions which are thought to contribute to an effective interpretation for therapeutic effectiveness, have been proposed. In this context, it is fact that Cognitive and Behavioral Therapy which is one of therapies used most widely is determined as effective on depression and anxiety disorder. CBT's, prevalence, being a structured method and studies about its impact on therapeutic change strengthens the evidence of its effectiveness.
ÖZET Bir psikoterapi yaklaşımının genel hedefinin, işlevsel olmayan tutum ve davranışları değişti... more ÖZET Bir psikoterapi yaklaşımının genel hedefinin, işlevsel olmayan tutum ve davranışları değiştirmek olduğu söylenebilir. Değişime yol açan psikoterapi yöntemlerinin terapötik etkililiği, diğer bir ifade ile hedef davranış, belirti veya bozukluktaki değişim ile yapılan müdahale arasında nedensellik ilişkisi kurulabilmesi etkililik çalışmaları yoluyla incelenmektedir. Bu gözden geçirme çalışmasının amacı terapötik etkili-lik çalışmalarını yöntem, bulgu ve yaklaşım açısından değerlendirmek, bu çalışmalara ilişkin tartışma ve eleştirileri Bilişsel Davranışçı Terapi bağlamında ele almaktır. Bu bağlamda ilk olarak terapötik etkililik tanımı yapılmış, terapötik etkililiğin ölçme yöntemleri etkililik, et-kinlik ve meta-analiz çalışmaları çerçevesinde ele alınmış, etkililik çalışmalarının bulgularına çeşitli açılardan yaklaşan yorum farklılıkları incelenmiş ve Bilişsel Davranışçı Terapi'nin bu başlıklar bağlamında yeri tartışılmıştır. Sonuç bölümünde ise ele alınan terapötik etkililik tartışmaları doğrultusunda, terapötik etkililiğin " etkili " bir biçimde yorumlanmasına yardımcı olacağı düşünülen bir dizi soru önerilmiştir. Bu bağlamda psikoterapi alanında en yaygın kullanılan psikoterapi yöntemlerinden biri olan BDT, özellikle anksiyete bozuklukları ve depresyonda etkili olduğu çeşitli çalışmalarla ortaya konan bir yaklaşım olduğu görünmektedir. Yapılandırılmış bir yöntem olması, yaygınlığı ve terapötik değişim konusundaki etkisine yönelik çalışmalar BDT'nin etkililiğine dair kanıtları güçlendirmektedir. Anahtar Sözcükler: Bilişsel davranışçı terapi, terapötik etkililik, etkinlik, etkililik, ortak etmenler, özgün etmenler SUMMARY How Effective are Efficiency Studies?: An Evaluation in the Context of Cognitive Behavioral Therapies The consensus view is that the main goal of a psychotherapy approach is to make changes in dysfunctional attitudes and behaviors. Therapeutic effectiveness, which is defined as " the establishment of causality between the intervention and the emergent changes in target behavior, symptom, or disorder, " has been examined via studies of therapeutic effectiveness. In this review, we aimed to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy and/or effectiveness studies in terms of their methods, results, and approaches. In addition, we wanted to discuss debates and criticism about these studies in the context of Cognitive and Behavioral Therapy (CBT). In this context , the definition of therapeutic effectiveness has been given and then, the measuring methods have been discussed within the framework of effectiveness , efficacy, and meta-analysis studies. Differences in the point of views regarding the results of effectiveness studies have also been examined. The place of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy has been discussed in the context of mentioned topics. In the conclusion part, the numbers of questions that are thought to contribute to an effective interpretation for therapeutic effectiveness have been proposed. In this context, it is a fact that Cognitive and Behavioral Therapy, which is one of therapies most widely used, has been determined as effective on depression and anxiety disorder. The CBT's, prevalence, being a structured method, and studies about its impact on therapeutic change strengthens the evidence of its effectiveness.
The relationship and interaction between a parent and child is of an ever-changing nature. In the... more The relationship and interaction between a parent and child is of an ever-changing nature. In the first years of the child, parents are more supportive of the child’s development and guide the changes that take place. When adolescence ends and child becomes an adult, parent–child relationship takes on a different pattern in which the relation is more egalitarian. Despite this changing nature, research findings demonstrate that children who continue to receive emotional support from their parents, feel attached to them and care about their contributions and support. Thus, it becomes important to evaluate how certain parental properties affect psychological health within this changing relationship structure. From this point of view, this study examines the mediator role of emotion regulation skills, interpersonal relationship styles, and perceived social support on the relationship between parental emotional availability and general psychological health of individuals aged 16–25 who still live with their parents. It has been found that difficulty in emotion regulation, interpersonal relationship style, and social support has complete mediation effect on the relationship between both maternal and paternal emotional availability and psychological health.
Travmatik olayların ardından yardım çalışmalarında yer alan profesyonel ve gönüllülerde travmanın... more Travmatik olayların ardından yardım çalışmalarında yer alan profesyonel ve gönüllülerde travmanın dolaylı etkisi nedeniyle bazı olumsuz psikolojik sonuçlar görülme olasılığı bulunmaktadır. Bu alanda gerçekleştirilen çalışmalar, travmaya dolaylı olarak maruz kalanların doğrudan maruz kalanlara benzer stres tepkileri geliştirdiklerini, “İkincil Travmatik Stres” kavramıyla ifade edilen bu tepkilerin “Travma Sonrası Stres Bozukluğu”yla benzerlikler taşıdığını ortaya koymaktadır. Yardım çalışanlarında olumsuz psikolojik sonuçlarla ilişkili olan stres kaynakları, olayın/görevin özellikleriyle ilişkili olabileceği gibi yapılan mesleğe özgü unsurlar da taşıyabilmekte, bireysel ve mesleki bazı özellikler ikincil travmatik stres tepkilerini yordamaktadır. Dolayısıyla, yardım çalışanlarında görülebilecek travma sonrası stres tepkilerine kaynak oluşturan unsurları, bu tepkilerin oluşumunda rol oynayan risk etmenleri ve koruyucu unsurları belirleme, bu tepkilerin önlenmesi ve/veya stres tepkileriyle başa çıkmaya yardımcı olan müdahalelere bilimsel kanıt sağlama açısından önem taşımaktadır. Bu gözden geçirme çalışmasında, ikincil travmatik stres olgusu, ilişkili değişkenler ve önleyici stratejiler konusunda yapılmış bilimsel araştırma bulguları ve alan çalışmaları çerçevesinde aktarılmaktadır.
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Traumatic events may cause negative psychological reactions on relief workers through indirect effects of trauma. Research reveal that individuals who are indirectly exposed to trauma develop similar stress responses to those directly exposed, and these responses, called “Secondary Traumatic Stress” have some common characteristics with “posttraumatic stress” symptomatology. Sources of stress in relief work may be related with the features of the event / duty as well as with the job, and individual and occupational factors may be predictive of posttraumatic symptoms. Therefore, it is important to identify the stressors and the strengths and weaknesses of relief workers so as to develop evidence based intervention strategies. In this review, secondary traumatic stress phenomenon is presented within the frame of reactions and related variables in relief workers that can be seen in relief workers and associated variables with secondary traumatic stress reactions.
How Effective are Efficiency Studies?: An Evaluation in the Context of Cognitive Behavioral Thera... more How Effective are Efficiency Studies?: An Evaluation in the Context of Cognitive Behavioral Therapies The consensus view is that the main goal of a psychotherapy approach is to make changes in dysfunctional attitudes and behaviors. Therapeutic effectiveness, which is defined as "the establishment of causality between the intervention and the emergent changes in target behavior, symptom, or disorder," has been examined via studies of therapeutic effectiveness. In this review, we aimed to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy and/or effectiveness studies in terms of their methods, results, and approaches. In addition, we wanted to discuss debates and criticism about these studies in the context of Cognitive and Behavioral Therapy (CBT). In this context, the definition of therapeutic effectiveness has been given and then, the measuring methods have been discussed within the framework of effectiveness, efficacy, and meta-analysis studies. Differences in the point of views regarding the results of effectiveness studies have also been examined. The place of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy has been discussed in the context of mentioned topics. In the conclusion part, the numbers of questions that are thought to contribute to an effective interpretation for therapeutic effectiveness have been proposed. In this context, it is a fact that Cognitive and Behavioral Therapy, which is one of therapies most widely used, has been determined as effective on depression and anxiety disorder. The CBT's, prevalence, being a structured method, and studies about its impact on therapeutic change strengthens the evidence of its effectiveness.
Travmatik olayların ardından yardım çalışmalarında yer alan profesyonel ve gönüllülerde travmanın... more Travmatik olayların ardından yardım çalışmalarında yer alan profesyonel ve gönüllülerde travmanın dolaylı etkisi nedeniyle bazı olumsuz psikolojik sonuçlar görülme olasılığı bulunmaktadır. Bu alanda gerçekleştirilen çalışmalar, travmaya dolaylı olarak maruz kalanların doğrudan maruz kalanlara benzer stres tepkileri geliştirdiklerini, “İkincil Travmatik Stres” kavramıyla ifade edilen bu tepkilerin “Travma Sonrası Stres Bozukluğu”yla benzerlikler taşıdığını ortaya koymaktadır. Yardım çalışanlarında olumsuz psikolojik sonuçlarla ilişkili olan stres kaynakları, olayın/görevin özellikleriyle ilişkili olabileceği gibi yapılan mesleğe özgü unsurlar da taşıyabilmekte, bireysel ve mesleki bazı özellikler ikincil travmatik stres tepkilerini yordamaktadır. Dolayısıyla, yardım çalışanlarında görülebilecek travma sonrası stres tepkilerine kaynak oluşturan unsurları, bu tepkilerin oluşumunda rol oynayan risk etmenleri ve koruyucu unsurları belirleme, bu tepkilerin önlenmesi ve/veya stres tepkileriyle başa çıkmaya yardımcı olan müdahalelere bilimsel kanıt sağlama açısından önem taşımaktadır. Bu gözden geçirme çalışmasında, ikincil travmatik stres olgusu, ilişkili değişkenler ve önleyici stratejiler konusunda yapılmış bilimsel araştırma bulguları ve alan çalışmaları çerçevesinde aktarılmaktadır. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Traumatic events may cause negative psychological reactions on relief workers through indirect effects of trauma. Research reveal that individuals who are indirectly exposed to trauma develop similar stress responses to those directly exposed, and these responses, called “Secondary Traumatic Stress” have some common characteristics with “posttraumatic stress” symptomatology. Sources of stress in relief work may be related with the features of the event / duty as well as with the job, and individual and occupational factors may be predictive of posttraumatic symptoms. Therefore, it is important to identify the stressors and the strengths and weaknesses of relief workers so as to develop evidence based intervention strategies. In this review, secondary traumatic stress phenomenon is presented within the frame of reactions and related variables in relief workers that can be seen in relief workers and associated variables with secondary traumatic stress reactions.
The consensus view seems to be that the main goal of a psychotherapy approach is to make changes ... more The consensus view seems to be that the main goal of a psychotherapy approach is to make changes in dysfunctional attitudes and behaviors. Therapeutic effectiveness which is defined as "the establishment of causality between the intervention and the emergent changes in target behavior, symptom, or disorder" has been examined via studies of therapeutic effectiveness. In this review, it is aimed to evaluate therapeutic efficacy and/or effectiveness studies in terms of their methods, results and approaches and also to discuss debates and critics about these studies in the context of Cognitive and Behavioral therapy. In this context, first of all, the definition of therapeutic effectiveness has been given, and then, measuring methods have been discussed within the framework of effectiveness, efficacy, and meta-analysis studies. Differences in the point of views regarding the results of effectiveness studies have been examined. The place of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy has been discussed in the context of mentioned topics. In the conclusion part, number of questions which are thought to contribute to an effective interpretation for therapeutic effectiveness, have been proposed. In this context, it is fact that Cognitive and Behavioral Therapy which is one of therapies used most widely is determined as effective on depression and anxiety disorder. CBT's, prevalence, being a structured method and studies about its impact on therapeutic change strengthens the evidence of its effectiveness.
ÖZET Bir psikoterapi yaklaşımının genel hedefinin, işlevsel olmayan tutum ve davranışları değişti... more ÖZET Bir psikoterapi yaklaşımının genel hedefinin, işlevsel olmayan tutum ve davranışları değiştirmek olduğu söylenebilir. Değişime yol açan psikoterapi yöntemlerinin terapötik etkililiği, diğer bir ifade ile hedef davranış, belirti veya bozukluktaki değişim ile yapılan müdahale arasında nedensellik ilişkisi kurulabilmesi etkililik çalışmaları yoluyla incelenmektedir. Bu gözden geçirme çalışmasının amacı terapötik etkili-lik çalışmalarını yöntem, bulgu ve yaklaşım açısından değerlendirmek, bu çalışmalara ilişkin tartışma ve eleştirileri Bilişsel Davranışçı Terapi bağlamında ele almaktır. Bu bağlamda ilk olarak terapötik etkililik tanımı yapılmış, terapötik etkililiğin ölçme yöntemleri etkililik, et-kinlik ve meta-analiz çalışmaları çerçevesinde ele alınmış, etkililik çalışmalarının bulgularına çeşitli açılardan yaklaşan yorum farklılıkları incelenmiş ve Bilişsel Davranışçı Terapi'nin bu başlıklar bağlamında yeri tartışılmıştır. Sonuç bölümünde ise ele alınan terapötik etkililik tartışmaları doğrultusunda, terapötik etkililiğin " etkili " bir biçimde yorumlanmasına yardımcı olacağı düşünülen bir dizi soru önerilmiştir. Bu bağlamda psikoterapi alanında en yaygın kullanılan psikoterapi yöntemlerinden biri olan BDT, özellikle anksiyete bozuklukları ve depresyonda etkili olduğu çeşitli çalışmalarla ortaya konan bir yaklaşım olduğu görünmektedir. Yapılandırılmış bir yöntem olması, yaygınlığı ve terapötik değişim konusundaki etkisine yönelik çalışmalar BDT'nin etkililiğine dair kanıtları güçlendirmektedir. Anahtar Sözcükler: Bilişsel davranışçı terapi, terapötik etkililik, etkinlik, etkililik, ortak etmenler, özgün etmenler SUMMARY How Effective are Efficiency Studies?: An Evaluation in the Context of Cognitive Behavioral Therapies The consensus view is that the main goal of a psychotherapy approach is to make changes in dysfunctional attitudes and behaviors. Therapeutic effectiveness, which is defined as " the establishment of causality between the intervention and the emergent changes in target behavior, symptom, or disorder, " has been examined via studies of therapeutic effectiveness. In this review, we aimed to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy and/or effectiveness studies in terms of their methods, results, and approaches. In addition, we wanted to discuss debates and criticism about these studies in the context of Cognitive and Behavioral Therapy (CBT). In this context , the definition of therapeutic effectiveness has been given and then, the measuring methods have been discussed within the framework of effectiveness , efficacy, and meta-analysis studies. Differences in the point of views regarding the results of effectiveness studies have also been examined. The place of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy has been discussed in the context of mentioned topics. In the conclusion part, the numbers of questions that are thought to contribute to an effective interpretation for therapeutic effectiveness have been proposed. In this context, it is a fact that Cognitive and Behavioral Therapy, which is one of therapies most widely used, has been determined as effective on depression and anxiety disorder. The CBT's, prevalence, being a structured method, and studies about its impact on therapeutic change strengthens the evidence of its effectiveness.
The relationship and interaction between a parent and child is of an ever-changing nature. In the... more The relationship and interaction between a parent and child is of an ever-changing nature. In the first years of the child, parents are more supportive of the child’s development and guide the changes that take place. When adolescence ends and child becomes an adult, parent–child relationship takes on a different pattern in which the relation is more egalitarian. Despite this changing nature, research findings demonstrate that children who continue to receive emotional support from their parents, feel attached to them and care about their contributions and support. Thus, it becomes important to evaluate how certain parental properties affect psychological health within this changing relationship structure. From this point of view, this study examines the mediator role of emotion regulation skills, interpersonal relationship styles, and perceived social support on the relationship between parental emotional availability and general psychological health of individuals aged 16–25 who still live with their parents. It has been found that difficulty in emotion regulation, interpersonal relationship style, and social support has complete mediation effect on the relationship between both maternal and paternal emotional availability and psychological health.
Travmatik olayların ardından yardım çalışmalarında yer alan profesyonel ve gönüllülerde travmanın... more Travmatik olayların ardından yardım çalışmalarında yer alan profesyonel ve gönüllülerde travmanın dolaylı etkisi nedeniyle bazı olumsuz psikolojik sonuçlar görülme olasılığı bulunmaktadır. Bu alanda gerçekleştirilen çalışmalar, travmaya dolaylı olarak maruz kalanların doğrudan maruz kalanlara benzer stres tepkileri geliştirdiklerini, “İkincil Travmatik Stres” kavramıyla ifade edilen bu tepkilerin “Travma Sonrası Stres Bozukluğu”yla benzerlikler taşıdığını ortaya koymaktadır. Yardım çalışanlarında olumsuz psikolojik sonuçlarla ilişkili olan stres kaynakları, olayın/görevin özellikleriyle ilişkili olabileceği gibi yapılan mesleğe özgü unsurlar da taşıyabilmekte, bireysel ve mesleki bazı özellikler ikincil travmatik stres tepkilerini yordamaktadır. Dolayısıyla, yardım çalışanlarında görülebilecek travma sonrası stres tepkilerine kaynak oluşturan unsurları, bu tepkilerin oluşumunda rol oynayan risk etmenleri ve koruyucu unsurları belirleme, bu tepkilerin önlenmesi ve/veya stres tepkileriyle başa çıkmaya yardımcı olan müdahalelere bilimsel kanıt sağlama açısından önem taşımaktadır. Bu gözden geçirme çalışmasında, ikincil travmatik stres olgusu, ilişkili değişkenler ve önleyici stratejiler konusunda yapılmış bilimsel araştırma bulguları ve alan çalışmaları çerçevesinde aktarılmaktadır.
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Traumatic events may cause negative psychological reactions on relief workers through indirect effects of trauma. Research reveal that individuals who are indirectly exposed to trauma develop similar stress responses to those directly exposed, and these responses, called “Secondary Traumatic Stress” have some common characteristics with “posttraumatic stress” symptomatology. Sources of stress in relief work may be related with the features of the event / duty as well as with the job, and individual and occupational factors may be predictive of posttraumatic symptoms. Therefore, it is important to identify the stressors and the strengths and weaknesses of relief workers so as to develop evidence based intervention strategies. In this review, secondary traumatic stress phenomenon is presented within the frame of reactions and related variables in relief workers that can be seen in relief workers and associated variables with secondary traumatic stress reactions.
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Traumatic events may cause negative psychological reactions on relief workers through indirect effects of trauma. Research reveal that individuals who are indirectly exposed to trauma develop similar stress responses to those directly exposed, and these responses, called “Secondary Traumatic Stress” have some common characteristics with “posttraumatic stress” symptomatology. Sources of stress in relief work may be related with the features of the event / duty as well as with the job, and individual and occupational factors may be predictive of posttraumatic symptoms. Therefore, it is important to identify the stressors and the strengths and weaknesses of relief workers so as to develop evidence based intervention strategies. In this review, secondary traumatic stress phenomenon is presented within the frame of reactions and related variables in relief workers that can be seen in relief workers and associated variables with secondary traumatic stress reactions.
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Traumatic events may cause negative psychological reactions on relief workers through indirect effects of trauma. Research reveal that individuals who are indirectly exposed to trauma develop similar stress responses to those directly exposed, and these responses, called “Secondary Traumatic Stress” have some common characteristics with “posttraumatic stress” symptomatology. Sources of stress in relief work may be related with the features of the event / duty as well as with the job, and individual and occupational factors may be predictive of posttraumatic symptoms. Therefore, it is important to identify the stressors and the strengths and weaknesses of relief workers so as to develop evidence based intervention strategies. In this review, secondary traumatic stress phenomenon is presented within the frame of reactions and related variables in relief workers that can be seen in relief workers and associated variables with secondary traumatic stress reactions.