Books by Gordana Jeremic
Topografija antičkog i kasnoantičkog Niša (Naissus). Arheološki tragovi na prostoru centra savremenog grada (Summary in English: Topography of Roman and Late Roman Niš (Naissus). Аrchaeological traces in the area of the modern city center), 2021
This monograph contains the results of protective archaeological research in the part in which mo... more This monograph contains the results of protective archaeological research in the part in which modern city center is being developed on the left Nišava bank, where during Roman times, a suburb (suburbium) of Naissus developed. During Late Antiquity parts of some of the quarters became places for burials, with the latest performed in the year 613 AD.
Late antique necropolis Jagodin mala, Introductory text G. Jeremić, National Museum in Niš, Niš , 2014
The largest necropolis of Naissus (modern Niš, Serbia) in the late antiquity period was formed on... more The largest necropolis of Naissus (modern Niš, Serbia) in the late antiquity period was formed on the right bank of the river Nišava, east of the fortification, along the road that led to Ratiaria. It is located on the site of today's city district of Jagodin Mala, after which it became known in literature. This area had been intensively used for burials from IV to the end of VI or beginning of VII century.
The necropolis of Naissus in Jagodin Mala represents a well organized cemetery, with regular rows of graves and tombs, whose number is the largest in the vicinity of grave basilicas, which were erected at a small distance one from another. Five such buildings were registered so far by the archaeological research and the most important one is the basilica with a crypt (V-VI c.).
The most luxury grave constructions belong to barrel vaulted tombs and tombs with arcosolia and calotte, sometimes decorated with wall painting (representations of St Paul and St Peter, IV-V c.; Christ monogram in the laurel wreath, cca 382 AD; etc). Richness of the grave goods and inventory indicates that city population lived in socially and economically prosperous times.
The site Saldum in the village Dobra (Serbia) at the mouth of the Kožica brook was covered with w... more The site Saldum in the village Dobra (Serbia) at the mouth of the Kožica brook was covered with waters of the accumulation lake after the construction of Hydroelectric power station Djerdap I. It has been systematically investigated for four years 1969-1970.
The objective of archaeological investigations at Saldum was the exploration of the area enclosed within the ramparts of the Early Byzantine fortification so the data concerning the complete area of this site in all its phases remained unknown to the investigators.
It was possible to distinguish five horizons of life at Saldum, from the 1st to the end of the 6th century.
PHASE I – Foundation of the settlement at Saldum is related to the period of the Flavians (68 – 96). The earliest layers at the site have not been investigated completely and neither the size of the settlements nor the structures in it were not defined. The analysis of the layer contents and the contemporary horizons it is possible to assume the existence of timber structures with floors of rammed earth and mortar. The portable finds indicate heterogeneous ethnic and social status of the inhabitants living at Saldum at that time. The coexistence of native population and bearers of the early Roman culture is confirmed by the pottery finds where we encountered parallel appearance of autochthonous Dacian pottery, to a small degree the La Tène (Celtic) pottery forms while to a greater extent were encountered the luxurious early Roman vessels (terra sigillata, terra nigra, small bowls and beakers with thin walls, marbled and glazed early Imperial pottery), which had been most probably imported from north Italic and central and south Gaulish centers. From this period also date the finds of personal equipment of the soldiers – casseroles with trifoliate mouth and with stamp probably of the Gaulish master CARVS and fragments of the scabbard of the sword of Pompeii type.
PHASE II – Period from Trajan until the middle of the 2nd century when the first stone fortification was erected. However, the fortification type (wall thickness between 1 and 1.30 m, without corner towers typical of the Trajan’s fortifications) does not suggest the military character of the structure but it is possible that military vicus from the Flavian period got the encompassing walls because of another entirely practical reason. In other words, it is possible that the customs office – portorium was established at Saldum at that time. It could be explained by the fact that the result of Trajan’s Dacian wars and opening of the Dacian frontier towards Moesia was the intensive arrival of civilians and goods and that Saldum was an ideal place for crossing the Danube. Archaeological finds, which confirm the continuity of the military vicus are very abundant and include a continuous presence of luxurious imported vessels from the western imperial and Pannonian workshops (terra sigillata, fine pottery, pottery lamps, glass vessels, military equipment and so on). The money, which confirms this phase includes the coins minted in the reign of Hadrian (117-138) and Antoninus Pius (138-161).
PHASE III – The continuity of life at Saldum could be followed also during the 2nd and 3rd centuries and from this period come many archaeological finds. Stone fortification (?) was still in use while the interior got more solid infrastructure (paved streets). This phase could be divided into two subphases, which could be distinguished in the archaeological material. The flooding of the terrain of considerable intensity (substantial layer of the river deposit) is confirmed during the entire period and certain traces of destruction including remains of burnt down timber structures, collapsed stones and sporadically burnt soil have also been encountered.
Phase III a – the time of the Severi (193-235) confirmed primarily by the coin finds and many pottery finds.
Phase III b – the time of Gallienus (253-268), Claudius II (268-270), Aurelianus (270-275 and Probus (276-282) that is, judging by the finds, the period of the greatest rebuilding at Saldum. At that time the detachments of the legion IV Flavia were stationed at Saldum as it is confirmed by bricks with stamps. Reconstruction, building activities and strengthening of the defensive structure were probably carried out under the supervision of praepositus Hermogenes.
After abandonment of Dacia in 271/272 Saldum obviously did not lose its strategic and functional importance judging by the finds, which suggest the presence of soldiers and civilians also in the following decade of that century. The function of Saldum continued to be the control of the land and river traffic – towing of ships, control of the crossing and certainly the portorium was still functioning for some time.
Among the pottery finds are prevailing the vessels of provincial manufacture, particularly bowls and plates and to a smaller amount the vessels for preparing, storing and transportation of food. Among the luxurious ware still popular were the terra sigillata bowls, which reached the Saldum market from Westerndorf, Rheinzabern and the workshop center Viminacium-Margum. Vessels used for storage and transportation (amphorae and pithoi) arrived from the Black Sea area or from the western workshops and this testify to the dynamic commercial connections with different parts of the Empire. As western imports are also considered cylindrical glass beakers and lamps with stamps of masters Cassius, Fortis and Sextus.
PHASE IV –New although short-lived but very intensive period (364-378/380) commenced with the restoration of limes by Valentinian and Valens and settling of considerable army forces. Saldum was of the type of small open settlements covering an area of around 2 hectares eventually defended by the timber palisades. The residential and economic structures (aboveground and semi dug out houses, workshops and storehouses) had been constructed of timber and daub with floors of rammed earth. The newly arrived inhabitants were Romanized population – limitanei with their families and their activities besides defending of this section of the limes also included economic activities directed at satisfying their own needs. The analysis of archaeological finds revealed that they were engaged in agriculture, stock-breeding, fishing, working of wood, leather and hide, clothes manufacturing and in production of the metal (iron and lead) objects. The archaeological finds (pottery, glass vessels, lamps) suggest that this Romanized population arrived at Saldum from some of neighboring areas, more likely Pannonia than the Lower Danube basin where the influences of the Chernyahov culture are conspicuous and such elements are lacking at Saldum.
Settlement at Saldum was most probably established around AD 365, it existed for only about fifteen years and was destroyed in the Gothic attacks in 378-380 judging by the hoards of coins fused together as a result of great conflagration. In the layer of destruction were found around twenty coin hoards and many scattered coin pieces (about 550 specimens in total) that indicate regular paying off of the Saldum military garrison with the coins minted mostly in Siscia and Thessalonica.
PHASE V – Phase V dates from the 6th century and it is possible to distinguish two subphases – time of Justinian and second half of the 6th century. The analysis of relationship between the stratigraphy and architectural remains revealed that fortification was constructed in the time of Justinian I (527-565) and that earlier architecture (stone walls from phase II-III) was only partiality incorporated in the new structure. The castellum was built according to the principles and recommendations for construction of the Early Byzantine fortifications. According to its total area of 0.14 ha it is classified among smaller fortifications for accommodation of the auxiliary units or numeri. Four towers were erected at the corners and three of them were circular while the fourth one, in the northeast, is rectangular with the apse within the eastern wall. It is possible that this tower had been used as church because of its distinct shape and orientation. In a sense it is possible, on the basis of the portable finds, to make a distinction between the garrisons at Saldum in the time of its construction and in the second half of the 6th century. The reason for this could be found in the general situation in the state and in the army in particular as well as in the strength and organization of the limes defense. The garrison in the time of Justinian was engaged exclusively in the military activities and was regularly supplied from the distribution centers while certain degree of ruralization is conspicuous in the material from the second half/end of the 6th century when supplying of the army was more difficult because of permanent barbarian invasions so the soldiers besides their regular activities had to take care of their sustenance and to provide food by hunting and fishing.
The repertoire of the 6th century pottery vessels is very modest and is based on the local 4th century traditions with addition of the amphorae from the Pontus region that were present in great quantities on the sites in the Middle Danube provinces. The coin finds include the issues of Justinian I and Justin II while the latest specimen is the follis of Maurice from 592/3 minted in Constantinople and this could be taken as approximate date of the end of life at Saldum as also at most other fortifications as a consequence of the Avarian-Slavic attacks probably in 595/6 and it was the end of life at this place.
The Roman Limes, or the boundaries of the
former Roman Empire, now stretching over
7,500 km throu... more The Roman Limes, or the boundaries of the
former Roman Empire, now stretching over
7,500 km through 20 countries that surround the
Mediterranean Sea, making it the largest and
longest monument in the world. If in Serbia is
not the most beautiful part, then certainly it is the
most exciting. Archaeologists in the area of the Iron
Gates in Serbia were already pretty busy in the second half
of the twentieth century during the construction
of Hydroelectric Power Stations Iron Gate I and
Iron Gate II, using the last chance to explore and
salvage what is left after several millennia of great
cultures that had developed along the Danube. In
the world were then sent images of the oldest stone
sculptures from Lepenski Vir, of remains the longest
bridge built in antiquity near nowadays Kostol, of
Roman road cut into the rocks of the Iron Gates
Gorge, of moving Trajan’s tablet... Items enriched
the museums, knowledge about ancient cultures
have influenced the new generation researchers
and new cultural theories, and ancient heritage is,
unfortunately, largely submerged and remaining
photos and drawings are the only testimonies of
their existence.
The archaeological site “Roman baths” is located in downtown Čačak, 200 meters southwest of the N... more The archaeological site “Roman baths” is located in downtown Čačak, 200 meters southwest of the National Museum of Čačak. Remains of bigger edifice’s foundation from Roman period were discovered in 1970 when the foundations for a residential - commercial building were dug. In the same year a systematic archaeological excavation was taken, after which the object was preserved (1970-1972). According to the archaeological research, above the remains of Roman building in the 12th century Christian necropolis was formed and the area was used since the middle Ages, through the Turkish times to the present day, which caused the devastation of older archaeological layers and findings.
The building that was discovered in 1970 represents the late Roman bath (balneum), built most likely at the end of 3rd or in the early 4th century, which was in use until the year AD 378 and the invasion of the Western Goths. Two phases are evident in the construction of the building. The building was built on an elevated river plateau sloping to the southeast, 600 m from the Morava river bed towards the south. Rectangular in shape, longitudinally oriented east-west and its eastern part turns 5 degrees to the north. The maximum length of the building along the east-west axis is 22.60 m, along the north-south axis 18.45 m, with total area of 340 square meters. Building has had at least eight rooms of various sizes and purposes, organized into three series (northern, central and south). In the construction of the baths parts of the epigraphical limestone monuments, probably gravestones, from the 2nd or 3rd century were secondarily used. Hypocaust piers, vaulting over the canals, door frames and floors were built of brick. In order to isolate from the moisture, the walls are coated with hydrostatic mortar. In the rubble of the building the remains of fresco decoration (traces of blue, red and ocher colours) were registered.
Portable findings from the late Roman baths in Čačak are quite humble. These are the findings of pottery and glass vessels, a small number of glass jewellery and metal objects (tools, calk, bronze sheaths) and coins.
Considering that the archaeological research found only baths, it is difficult to assume whether it represented part of a rural estate (villa rustica) or a settlement (vicus). It is less likely that it was a part of a military fortification or a fortified road station.
Roman settlement in Cacak is not mentioned in epigraphic sources, but inscriptions kept in the Na... more Roman settlement in Cacak is not mentioned in epigraphic sources, but inscriptions kept in the National Museum clearly speak about the significance of this region in the Roman Times. In the town itself or in its vicinity there was a border station between provinces of Moesia Superior and Dalmatia. The region around Cacak used to belong to the Roman province of Dalmatia.
A number of inscriptions found in Cacak and its vicinity mention beneficiarii consularis from the second and third century A.D. Beneficiarii consularis protected mining districts and supervised ore transports in the region. In the last decades of the second century, after 170, the border station was garrisoned by the newly formed cohort II milliaria Delmatarum, under the command of Ti. Claudius Gallus. Tiberius Claudius Gallus should be identified with the senator of the same name, consul suffectus and governor of Numidia and Dacia at the beginning of the third century.
The collection of the museum kept the altars dedicated to Roman deities Jupiter, Mars, Diana, Genius loci and to Egyptian deities Serapis and Isis.
Papers by Gordana Jeremic
Educational Programs — The Future of World Cultural and Natural Heritage : 50 Years /1972–2022/ of the Convention on the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage. Thematic Conference Proceedings., 2023
The paper has analyzed the Roman Limes in the Republic of Serbia inscribed on the UNESCO WH List ... more The paper has analyzed the Roman Limes in the Republic of Serbia inscribed on the UNESCO WH List and how competent scientific valorization influences the creation of a declaration of universal value and authenticity of the sites preliminarily selected for this nomination.
Ancient DNA research in the past decade has revealed that European population structure changed d... more Ancient DNA research in the past decade has revealed that European population structure changed dramatically in the prehistoric period (14,000-3,000 years before present, YBP), reflecting the widespread introduction of Neolithic farmer and Bronze Age Steppe ancestries. However, little is known about how population structure changed in the historical period onward (3,000 YBP - present). To address this, we collected whole genomes from 204 individuals from Europe and the Mediterranean, many of which are the first historical period genomes from their region (e.g. Armenia, France). We found that most regions show remarkable inter-individual heterogeneity. Around 8% of historical individuals carry ancestry uncommon in the region where they were sampled, some indicating cross-Mediterranean contacts. Despite this high level of mobility, overall population structure across western Eurasia is relatively stable through the historical period up to the present, mirroring the geographic map. We ...
Gamzigrad-Studien I. Ergebnisse der deutsch-serbischen Forschungen im Umfeld des Palastes Romuliana, Hrsg. Gerda von Bülow, Sofija Petković, Römisch-Germanische Kommission, Archaeological Institute Belgrade, Römisch-Germanische Forschungen Bd. 75. Wiesbaden 2020, 353–371. ISBN 978-3-95490-477-8, 2020
The imperial complex in Gamzigrad–Romuliana had an opulent decoration program for rooms and open ... more The imperial complex in Gamzigrad–Romuliana had an opulent decoration program for rooms and open spaces. Some of the most sumptuous decorative elements were the mosaics and surfaces covered with luxurious marble tiles. The mosaics were mostly used to cover floors of the most representative buildings, such as Palace 1, thermae, or the cross-shaped building in the southwestern corner of the fortification, and traces of them were noted in vault decorations in the mentioned objects as well. The mosaics were made in opus tessellatum and opus vermiculatum techniques. Composition patterns with a square or a circular base were used the most, and fields were organized into carpets, filled with different geometric, vegetative, and figural motifs.
A special group of decorative floors from the buildings of Romuliana consists of those decorated with cut marble tiles (sectilia pavimenta). The central part of the most representative room in the palatial complex – aula was decorated with this precious technique, as well as the appertaining two stibadia (triconch and tetraconch). Out of the floors decorated with this technique from Palace 1, only the substructure and imprint of tiles in the mortar remained. A reconstruction of motifs used was made based on an analysis of those elements, first and foremost based on the most approximate analogy, chronologically and stylistically – Galerius’ imperial complex in Thessaloniki.
Гласник Друштва конзерватора Србије 46 / Glasnik društva konzervatora Srbije 46, 2022
During 2021 and 2022, archaeological research was carried out in Prahovo (Negotin municipality, S... more During 2021 and 2022, archaeological research was carried out in Prahovo (Negotin municipality, Serbia), in the western part of the southern rampart of the late antique city of Aquae on the Middle Danube limes. The research was carried out on the only preserved and accessible part of the once-significant Roman and late antique settlement with fortification, port and Early Christian episcopal see. The project was carried out due to the need for the presentation of the remains in situ since this site is on the UNESCO Tentative list of World Cultural Heritage "Frontiers of the Roman Empire".
The aim of the archaeological excavations was to define the remains of the southern rampart, and its construction method, as well as to determine the stratigraphy extra muros, on the southern side of the defended area. The discovered rampart was built with the use of massive stone slabs, organized in cells, with the outer face plastered with rectangular stone slabs. It belongs to the type of city ramparts from Late Antiquity, recorded in several major cities of the Balkans and Asia Minor. Parallels can be found for example in the construction of the ramparts of Chersonesus in the Bosphorus Kingdom (Chesonesus, Sevastopol) (4th-5th c. CE). The research in Prahovo also yielded data on the existence of the late antique necropolis extra muros, from which seven graves of inhumated deceased, oriented in the west-east direction, were registered.
Keywords: Prahovo, Aquae, Roman limes, Middle Danube, rampart, city walls, graves, necropolis, late antiquity.
Stone and Splendor. Interior Decorations in Late-antique Palaces and Villas. Proceedings of a Workshop, Trier, 25–26 April 2019, ed. Vilma Ruppienė, Wiesbaden , 2021
The fortified palatial complex in Gamzigrad (Romuliana) represents a remarkable example of archit... more The fortified palatial complex in Gamzigrad (Romuliana) represents a remarkable example of architecture and art in the area of the Balkans during the Tetrarchy period, created during the short reign of its owner and commissioner – Emperor Galerius (305–311). Remains of a complex with buildings of official, cult and residential character, protected by ramparts, were discovered. The complex had opulent architectural decorations: rooms and open spaces were decorated with sculptures, walls with frescos and mosaics, and floors with polychrome mosaics. The entire complex was finished, the decoration of the buildings included, in the period between 308 and 311. Analyses of decorative elements from the complex in Romuliana provide an overview of the program scheme which brings together the traditions and innovations of Roman crafts and art centres from different parts of the Mediterranean world.
VIVERE MILITARE EST. From Populus to Emperors - Living on the Frontier, Volume 68/1, eds. S. Golubović, N. Mrđić, Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade, Belgrade 2018., 2018
Abstract: This paper studies historical sources combined with archaeological data on traces of ea... more Abstract: This paper studies historical sources combined with archaeological data on traces of early Christianity in the middle section of the Roman Danubian Limes. Thanks to the results of archaeological researches and accidental findings, a picture was obtained, although still insufficiently clear, on the development of Christianity in this area in the period from the 4th up until the end of the 6th century. Historical sources note the existence of an organized Christian community at the Limes in the end of the 3rd and the beginning of the 4th century. The oldest archaeological traces come from the mid–4th century and they are mostly linked to the findings of painted tombs or stone and lead sarcophagi with distinct Christian symbolism. In large urban centres, Singidunum and Viminacium, parts of buildings which can be possibly defined as churches were discovered, from the 4th–5th century. Most of the ecclesiastic buildings discovered along the Limes belong to the period of the 6th century. They were built within military encampments and they bear witness of the high degree of Christianization not only of military crews but also the civilian population which lived in those fortifications and their immediate vicinity.
Key words: Early Christianity, ecclesiastical overview, fourth– sixth centuries, limes, churches, tombs, wall painting, sarcophagi.
VIVERE MILITARE EST From Populus to Emperors - Living on the Frontier, Volume 68/1, eds. S. Golubović, N. Mrđić, Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade 2018.
The paper deals with the Early Christian objects in the Middle Danube Limes from Singidunum to Aq... more The paper deals with the Early Christian objects in the Middle Danube Limes from Singidunum to Aquae. According to their function, shape or decorative content, it is possible to divide them into items that used in liturgical practice (silver chalices, bowls, spoons used during the Eucharist, flagon, procession crosses, lamps) and various objects, which shape, inscription or ornamental elements indicate Christian character, but which were intended for secular purposes (jewelry, steelyard, crest application with Chi–Rho monogram, fibulae etc.). In addition to the local products, a certain number of objects consist of imported material produced in some major production centers, most often in the East, from where they were distributed to the other parts of the Roman Empire. A significant number of imported items indicate Egyptian origin, with their separate production centers, and from where they had been brought as an import to the Balkan region by trade routes. Some of the products were manufactured in western centers of manufacture. All registered Early Christian items, in their own way shed light on a turbulent period in this region from the 4th to the beginning of the 7th century.
Keywords: Early Christian objects, local and imported products,
Middle Danube Limes, 4th to the beginning of 7th century.
ACTA XVI CONGRESSVS INTERNATIONALIS ARCHAEOLOGIAE CHRISTIANAE. Romae (22-28.9.2013) COSTANTINO E I COSTANTINIDI L’INNOVAZIONE COSTANTINIANA, LE SUE RADICI E I SUOI SVILUPPI. Pars II. Curatela scientifica Olof BRANDT, Vincenzo FIOCCHI NICOLAI, Cura editoriale Olof BRANDT, Gabriele CASTIGLIA, Nov 17, 2016
The antique Niš (Naissus) in today’s Republic of Serbia, was developed in the fertile valley of t... more The antique Niš (Naissus) in today’s Republic of Serbia, was developed in the fertile valley of the Nišava river (Navisos), near it’s confluence into Južna Morava river (Margum). It belonged to the group of the largest cities in the region of Dardania ([Nai]ssus Darda[niae]), in the province of Moesia superior, and, after administrative reforms in the tetrarchy period, it became part of a newly founded province of Dacia mediterranea. Being an important strategic point, the city was developed on the crossroad of important trans-Balkan routes.
The city went through economic, political and demographic flourishment since the end of the III century, and especially throughout the IV century, up to middle of the V century, when the city was severely destroyed by Huns in 441 AD, and never fully recovered. Naissus especially reached the peak of its urbanistic and artistical flourishement during the reign of Constantine I (306-337), born in Naissus, who magnifice ornavit his birth place. Another testimony on the city’s importance are numerous visits, longer or shorter staying of the most important rulers of the IV century.
The earliest mention of the Christian communities in Naissus originates from the IV century. From this period the first Christian monuments begin to appear on the city territory. Basilicae, graveyard churches, family grave tombs are being erected, and among small objects appear those with clear Christian symbolism. From the IV century, Naissus is confirmed as an episcopal place, and in the period IV-VI century names of six episcopes, participants of Ecumenical councils, were noted.
Roman Limes and Cities in the Territory of Serbia, catalogue of the exhibition, Gallery of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, no. 145, Archaeological Institute, eds. M. Korać, S. Pop-Lazić, Belgrade 2018.
The process of Christianization in the middle Danube region started somewhat later than in the so... more The process of Christianization in the middle Danube region started somewhat later than in the southern part of the Balkans, where it began in the 1st century AD. Some of the earliest data about Early Christians come from the time of Diocletian (284–305), who persecuted them ferociously and systematically, especially the priests and the Roman soldiers deployed in the middle Danube region who opposed to the pagan customs endorsed by the Emperor.
The archaeological remains of ecclesiastical architecture from the period of Early Christianity are not numerous. There are no reliable data about the early churches in Singidunum and Viminacium, since these two metropolises are still insufficiently researched.
Thanks to the rescue research carried out prior to the construction of Iron Gate I and II hydropower plants, we now know more about the intensity of church building and the way these structures looked. The excavations unearthed the remains of churches’ foundations in Čezava fort (Novae), in Donji Milanovac (Taliata), Boljetin (Smorna) and Vajuga-Karaula. These are single-naved structures with a smaller nartex, an entrance on the west side and one or two annexes, most often on the south side. In the church in Taliata, in the altar area, there was subselium, whereas in Novae and Smorna there were baptisterium. These churches were erected during the reign of Justinian I (527–565), likely during his renewal of the Limes in the 40s of the 6th century, but were demolished around the end of that same century, in the onrush of the Avars and Slavs.
Journal of classical studies Matica srpska 21-22 , 2020
In the areas of Northern Illyricum more than 100 Early Christian churches were registered, but on... more In the areas of Northern Illyricum more than 100 Early Christian churches were registered, but only a small number of them has been archeologically explored. The largest amount of data was obtained in the last decades, most prominently from the areas of Naissus, Remesiana, Turres, at the sites of fortified hillforts of the Western or Southern Serbia, as well as the areas along the Danubian limes.
The discovered glass lamps belong to the most frequent types of cylindrical, conical of hemispherical vessels, with a hollow foot or a button-shaped bottom. The glass window panels suggest a wide-spread tendency of recycling raw materials – mostly of a relatively poor quality. The archaeological and archaeometric researches have provided certain indications on the existence of local glass workshops, which were able to meet the needs of the local population for objects made of glass, possibly used in the sacral context as well.
VIVERE MILITARE EST. From Populus to Emperors - Living on the Frontier, Volume 68/1, eds. S. Golubović, N. Mrđić, Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade 2018., 2018
Abstract: The Roman army required large quantities of different objects for daily-use and it was ... more Abstract: The Roman army required large quantities of different objects for daily-use and it was an important consumer and producer of diverse craft goods, such as everyday tools, clothing items, vessels for storage, cooking and consumption, luxury personal items, and many more.
The Limes regions in Pannonia Inferior and Moesia Superior had an important role in the economic and political life of these provinces, because of the permanent presence of the Roman army and state administration, and also thanks to the convenient geographical position and numerous natural resources. Along with the establishment of the Roman government in the Pannonia Inferior and Moesia Superior, diverse goods from different parts of the Empire began to arrive, and craft production by Roman standards was established in the borderland areas as well. At the same time, autochthonous, traditional techniques of production were not neglected. In this paper, we will offer a brief overview of the archaeological and epigraphic evidence for craft production of objects made from clay, stone and osseous raw materials, related to the Limes on the present-day territory of Serbia.
Keywords: craft production, workshops, craftsperson, ceramic technology, stone objects, osseous technology
Zbornik radova Narodnog muzeja Čačak, 50, 2020
In the collection of the National Museum of Čačak there is a certain type of archaeological findi... more In the collection of the National Museum of Čačak there is a certain type of archaeological findings, which can be encountered most often in Early Byzantine layers and units, on a large number of sites, and which have been interpreted in a different manner in expert and scientific papers. Those are items made of processed deer antlers, with a standardised appearance and decoration manner – in a cylindrical form, with a circular perforation on one side, and cut on the other side, with a cuboid-shaped segment. This type of findings is very common in the wider area of the Balkans and they are dated into the period from the end of the 4th up to the end of the 6th and the beginning of the 7th century, though they are most typical of the 6th century. These findings have been registered at Gradina on Jelica, in Vojska near Jagodina, Niš – Naissus, Gamzigrad – Romuliana, Karataš – Diana, Caričin Grad – Iustiniana Prima?, and examples are also known from a large number of sites in Bulgaria and Northern Macedonia.
There are different assumptions on the function of these items. We would agree with the researchers who assume that these items were used in textile production, for weaving, because they are often found with items linked to looms (whorls, weights) and wool processing (combs, scissors, needles et al.). On the basis of findings from Stobi, it is assumed that those were heddle holders. The findings of items made of bone, deer antlers and metal tools indicate that textile production was a highly developed and very important economic activity at Gradina on Jelica. Considering the diffused topography of these findings, in several units of different parts of the fortified city and suburb, it is possible that there were smaller weaving workshops, for the needs of the local population, clergy, possibly members of monastic communities and military crews in charge of the safety of this place.
24. INTERNATIONAL LIMES CONGRESS, SERBIA, SEPTEMBER 2018, BOOK OF ABSTRACTS, eds. S. Golubović, N. Mrđić, Belgrade 2018.
After the arrival of the Roman army the first professional medics probably made their appearance ... more After the arrival of the Roman army the first professional medics probably made their appearance in the territory of Upper Moesia, predominantly in Singidunum and Viminacium. The means of treatment, and therefore the level of medicine, can be knowledgeable from several different sources, while the most accurate data are those obtained by the archaeological discovery of original medical instruments. In ancient Rome more than 150 different types of surgical instruments have been used. More than 300 medical and surgical instruments of various types so far have been found on the Upper Moesian Limes from Singidunum to Aquae.
Roman citizens in Singidunum (Belgrade) lived in good conditions in both the town and the surrounding villages. From archeological excavations of the area of canabae and castrum, 28 various medical mainly surgical objects have been found. Also several medical objects have been found in various settlements, smaller fortifications or villae rusticae of ager Singidonensis. Even though at the main castrum of Singidunum no hospital has been discovered yet, just south of Belgrade, epigraphy from auxiliary fort Demessus (Guberevac/Stojnik), at the mining area at Kosmaj, has the word valetudinarium inscribed on it.
Presence of some graves of doctors and pharmacists and their discovered equipment testifies that medical care was at the highest possible level in Viminacium (Stari Kostolac), capital of Moesia Superior. In several tombs in Viminacium many surgical instruments from I to III century have been found. Medical instruments of an eye doctor - "medicus et chirurgus ocularius" were excavated on the southern city-necropolis.
Downstream from Viminacium several surgical instruments are found on different sites: in Ledarta (Ram), Cuppae (Golubac), Castrum Novae (Čezava), Smorna (Boljetin), Taliata (Donji Milanovac) and at Transdierna (Tekija). At the site of Diana (Karataš) most of the medical instruments have been found dating from the II and III century, mainly made of bronze.
Well preserved traces of sewer system and water pipes even aqueducts were found not only in the town territory of Singidunum, Margum, Viminacium and Taliata but also further away. Interestingly in Singidunum, Margum,Viminacium, Porečka Reka, Transdierna, Diana and Egeta (Brza Palanka) the existence of thermae and balnea was archaeologically or epigraphically documented.
Constantine the Great and the Edict of Milan 313. The birth of Christianity in the Roman provinces on the soil of Serbia, eds. I. Popović, B. Borić-Brešković, National Museum in Belgrade, Archaeological Monographs 22, Belgrade 2013.
The largest city necropolis of Naissus in the period of Late Antiquity was formed east of the for... more The largest city necropolis of Naissus in the period of Late Antiquity was formed east of the fortress, along the road to Ratiaria. Since it is located in today’s city quarter of Jagodin Mala, it became known by that name in the literature. In Late Antiquity, this area had been used intensively for burials, from the end of the 4th century to the 6th or beginning of the 7th century.
During the systematic exploration of this area, five church edifices, a crypt (martyrium?), over 65 brick lined tombs, a large number of brick lined graves and around 300 graves of the deceased, interred in the ground, have been identified. Between the tombs and in the free spaces, the deceased were buried in simple grave holes or in wooden coffins. The area has revealed different types of sepulchral structures, building methods, and materials that were used, as well as the funeral practices of the inhabitants of Naissus in Late Antiquity, during Early Christianity. The wealth of grave goods and inventory suggests that the population lived in a time of social and economic prosperity.
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The necropolis of Naissus in Jagodin Mala represents a well organized cemetery, with regular rows of graves and tombs, whose number is the largest in the vicinity of grave basilicas, which were erected at a small distance one from another. Five such buildings were registered so far by the archaeological research and the most important one is the basilica with a crypt (V-VI c.).
The most luxury grave constructions belong to barrel vaulted tombs and tombs with arcosolia and calotte, sometimes decorated with wall painting (representations of St Paul and St Peter, IV-V c.; Christ monogram in the laurel wreath, cca 382 AD; etc). Richness of the grave goods and inventory indicates that city population lived in socially and economically prosperous times.
The objective of archaeological investigations at Saldum was the exploration of the area enclosed within the ramparts of the Early Byzantine fortification so the data concerning the complete area of this site in all its phases remained unknown to the investigators.
It was possible to distinguish five horizons of life at Saldum, from the 1st to the end of the 6th century.
PHASE I – Foundation of the settlement at Saldum is related to the period of the Flavians (68 – 96). The earliest layers at the site have not been investigated completely and neither the size of the settlements nor the structures in it were not defined. The analysis of the layer contents and the contemporary horizons it is possible to assume the existence of timber structures with floors of rammed earth and mortar. The portable finds indicate heterogeneous ethnic and social status of the inhabitants living at Saldum at that time. The coexistence of native population and bearers of the early Roman culture is confirmed by the pottery finds where we encountered parallel appearance of autochthonous Dacian pottery, to a small degree the La Tène (Celtic) pottery forms while to a greater extent were encountered the luxurious early Roman vessels (terra sigillata, terra nigra, small bowls and beakers with thin walls, marbled and glazed early Imperial pottery), which had been most probably imported from north Italic and central and south Gaulish centers. From this period also date the finds of personal equipment of the soldiers – casseroles with trifoliate mouth and with stamp probably of the Gaulish master CARVS and fragments of the scabbard of the sword of Pompeii type.
PHASE II – Period from Trajan until the middle of the 2nd century when the first stone fortification was erected. However, the fortification type (wall thickness between 1 and 1.30 m, without corner towers typical of the Trajan’s fortifications) does not suggest the military character of the structure but it is possible that military vicus from the Flavian period got the encompassing walls because of another entirely practical reason. In other words, it is possible that the customs office – portorium was established at Saldum at that time. It could be explained by the fact that the result of Trajan’s Dacian wars and opening of the Dacian frontier towards Moesia was the intensive arrival of civilians and goods and that Saldum was an ideal place for crossing the Danube. Archaeological finds, which confirm the continuity of the military vicus are very abundant and include a continuous presence of luxurious imported vessels from the western imperial and Pannonian workshops (terra sigillata, fine pottery, pottery lamps, glass vessels, military equipment and so on). The money, which confirms this phase includes the coins minted in the reign of Hadrian (117-138) and Antoninus Pius (138-161).
PHASE III – The continuity of life at Saldum could be followed also during the 2nd and 3rd centuries and from this period come many archaeological finds. Stone fortification (?) was still in use while the interior got more solid infrastructure (paved streets). This phase could be divided into two subphases, which could be distinguished in the archaeological material. The flooding of the terrain of considerable intensity (substantial layer of the river deposit) is confirmed during the entire period and certain traces of destruction including remains of burnt down timber structures, collapsed stones and sporadically burnt soil have also been encountered.
Phase III a – the time of the Severi (193-235) confirmed primarily by the coin finds and many pottery finds.
Phase III b – the time of Gallienus (253-268), Claudius II (268-270), Aurelianus (270-275 and Probus (276-282) that is, judging by the finds, the period of the greatest rebuilding at Saldum. At that time the detachments of the legion IV Flavia were stationed at Saldum as it is confirmed by bricks with stamps. Reconstruction, building activities and strengthening of the defensive structure were probably carried out under the supervision of praepositus Hermogenes.
After abandonment of Dacia in 271/272 Saldum obviously did not lose its strategic and functional importance judging by the finds, which suggest the presence of soldiers and civilians also in the following decade of that century. The function of Saldum continued to be the control of the land and river traffic – towing of ships, control of the crossing and certainly the portorium was still functioning for some time.
Among the pottery finds are prevailing the vessels of provincial manufacture, particularly bowls and plates and to a smaller amount the vessels for preparing, storing and transportation of food. Among the luxurious ware still popular were the terra sigillata bowls, which reached the Saldum market from Westerndorf, Rheinzabern and the workshop center Viminacium-Margum. Vessels used for storage and transportation (amphorae and pithoi) arrived from the Black Sea area or from the western workshops and this testify to the dynamic commercial connections with different parts of the Empire. As western imports are also considered cylindrical glass beakers and lamps with stamps of masters Cassius, Fortis and Sextus.
PHASE IV –New although short-lived but very intensive period (364-378/380) commenced with the restoration of limes by Valentinian and Valens and settling of considerable army forces. Saldum was of the type of small open settlements covering an area of around 2 hectares eventually defended by the timber palisades. The residential and economic structures (aboveground and semi dug out houses, workshops and storehouses) had been constructed of timber and daub with floors of rammed earth. The newly arrived inhabitants were Romanized population – limitanei with their families and their activities besides defending of this section of the limes also included economic activities directed at satisfying their own needs. The analysis of archaeological finds revealed that they were engaged in agriculture, stock-breeding, fishing, working of wood, leather and hide, clothes manufacturing and in production of the metal (iron and lead) objects. The archaeological finds (pottery, glass vessels, lamps) suggest that this Romanized population arrived at Saldum from some of neighboring areas, more likely Pannonia than the Lower Danube basin where the influences of the Chernyahov culture are conspicuous and such elements are lacking at Saldum.
Settlement at Saldum was most probably established around AD 365, it existed for only about fifteen years and was destroyed in the Gothic attacks in 378-380 judging by the hoards of coins fused together as a result of great conflagration. In the layer of destruction were found around twenty coin hoards and many scattered coin pieces (about 550 specimens in total) that indicate regular paying off of the Saldum military garrison with the coins minted mostly in Siscia and Thessalonica.
PHASE V – Phase V dates from the 6th century and it is possible to distinguish two subphases – time of Justinian and second half of the 6th century. The analysis of relationship between the stratigraphy and architectural remains revealed that fortification was constructed in the time of Justinian I (527-565) and that earlier architecture (stone walls from phase II-III) was only partiality incorporated in the new structure. The castellum was built according to the principles and recommendations for construction of the Early Byzantine fortifications. According to its total area of 0.14 ha it is classified among smaller fortifications for accommodation of the auxiliary units or numeri. Four towers were erected at the corners and three of them were circular while the fourth one, in the northeast, is rectangular with the apse within the eastern wall. It is possible that this tower had been used as church because of its distinct shape and orientation. In a sense it is possible, on the basis of the portable finds, to make a distinction between the garrisons at Saldum in the time of its construction and in the second half of the 6th century. The reason for this could be found in the general situation in the state and in the army in particular as well as in the strength and organization of the limes defense. The garrison in the time of Justinian was engaged exclusively in the military activities and was regularly supplied from the distribution centers while certain degree of ruralization is conspicuous in the material from the second half/end of the 6th century when supplying of the army was more difficult because of permanent barbarian invasions so the soldiers besides their regular activities had to take care of their sustenance and to provide food by hunting and fishing.
The repertoire of the 6th century pottery vessels is very modest and is based on the local 4th century traditions with addition of the amphorae from the Pontus region that were present in great quantities on the sites in the Middle Danube provinces. The coin finds include the issues of Justinian I and Justin II while the latest specimen is the follis of Maurice from 592/3 minted in Constantinople and this could be taken as approximate date of the end of life at Saldum as also at most other fortifications as a consequence of the Avarian-Slavic attacks probably in 595/6 and it was the end of life at this place.
former Roman Empire, now stretching over
7,500 km through 20 countries that surround the
Mediterranean Sea, making it the largest and
longest monument in the world. If in Serbia is
not the most beautiful part, then certainly it is the
most exciting. Archaeologists in the area of the Iron
Gates in Serbia were already pretty busy in the second half
of the twentieth century during the construction
of Hydroelectric Power Stations Iron Gate I and
Iron Gate II, using the last chance to explore and
salvage what is left after several millennia of great
cultures that had developed along the Danube. In
the world were then sent images of the oldest stone
sculptures from Lepenski Vir, of remains the longest
bridge built in antiquity near nowadays Kostol, of
Roman road cut into the rocks of the Iron Gates
Gorge, of moving Trajan’s tablet... Items enriched
the museums, knowledge about ancient cultures
have influenced the new generation researchers
and new cultural theories, and ancient heritage is,
unfortunately, largely submerged and remaining
photos and drawings are the only testimonies of
their existence.
The building that was discovered in 1970 represents the late Roman bath (balneum), built most likely at the end of 3rd or in the early 4th century, which was in use until the year AD 378 and the invasion of the Western Goths. Two phases are evident in the construction of the building. The building was built on an elevated river plateau sloping to the southeast, 600 m from the Morava river bed towards the south. Rectangular in shape, longitudinally oriented east-west and its eastern part turns 5 degrees to the north. The maximum length of the building along the east-west axis is 22.60 m, along the north-south axis 18.45 m, with total area of 340 square meters. Building has had at least eight rooms of various sizes and purposes, organized into three series (northern, central and south). In the construction of the baths parts of the epigraphical limestone monuments, probably gravestones, from the 2nd or 3rd century were secondarily used. Hypocaust piers, vaulting over the canals, door frames and floors were built of brick. In order to isolate from the moisture, the walls are coated with hydrostatic mortar. In the rubble of the building the remains of fresco decoration (traces of blue, red and ocher colours) were registered.
Portable findings from the late Roman baths in Čačak are quite humble. These are the findings of pottery and glass vessels, a small number of glass jewellery and metal objects (tools, calk, bronze sheaths) and coins.
Considering that the archaeological research found only baths, it is difficult to assume whether it represented part of a rural estate (villa rustica) or a settlement (vicus). It is less likely that it was a part of a military fortification or a fortified road station.
A number of inscriptions found in Cacak and its vicinity mention beneficiarii consularis from the second and third century A.D. Beneficiarii consularis protected mining districts and supervised ore transports in the region. In the last decades of the second century, after 170, the border station was garrisoned by the newly formed cohort II milliaria Delmatarum, under the command of Ti. Claudius Gallus. Tiberius Claudius Gallus should be identified with the senator of the same name, consul suffectus and governor of Numidia and Dacia at the beginning of the third century.
The collection of the museum kept the altars dedicated to Roman deities Jupiter, Mars, Diana, Genius loci and to Egyptian deities Serapis and Isis.
Papers by Gordana Jeremic
A special group of decorative floors from the buildings of Romuliana consists of those decorated with cut marble tiles (sectilia pavimenta). The central part of the most representative room in the palatial complex – aula was decorated with this precious technique, as well as the appertaining two stibadia (triconch and tetraconch). Out of the floors decorated with this technique from Palace 1, only the substructure and imprint of tiles in the mortar remained. A reconstruction of motifs used was made based on an analysis of those elements, first and foremost based on the most approximate analogy, chronologically and stylistically – Galerius’ imperial complex in Thessaloniki.
The aim of the archaeological excavations was to define the remains of the southern rampart, and its construction method, as well as to determine the stratigraphy extra muros, on the southern side of the defended area. The discovered rampart was built with the use of massive stone slabs, organized in cells, with the outer face plastered with rectangular stone slabs. It belongs to the type of city ramparts from Late Antiquity, recorded in several major cities of the Balkans and Asia Minor. Parallels can be found for example in the construction of the ramparts of Chersonesus in the Bosphorus Kingdom (Chesonesus, Sevastopol) (4th-5th c. CE). The research in Prahovo also yielded data on the existence of the late antique necropolis extra muros, from which seven graves of inhumated deceased, oriented in the west-east direction, were registered.
Keywords: Prahovo, Aquae, Roman limes, Middle Danube, rampart, city walls, graves, necropolis, late antiquity.
Key words: Early Christianity, ecclesiastical overview, fourth– sixth centuries, limes, churches, tombs, wall painting, sarcophagi.
Keywords: Early Christian objects, local and imported products,
Middle Danube Limes, 4th to the beginning of 7th century.
The city went through economic, political and demographic flourishment since the end of the III century, and especially throughout the IV century, up to middle of the V century, when the city was severely destroyed by Huns in 441 AD, and never fully recovered. Naissus especially reached the peak of its urbanistic and artistical flourishement during the reign of Constantine I (306-337), born in Naissus, who magnifice ornavit his birth place. Another testimony on the city’s importance are numerous visits, longer or shorter staying of the most important rulers of the IV century.
The earliest mention of the Christian communities in Naissus originates from the IV century. From this period the first Christian monuments begin to appear on the city territory. Basilicae, graveyard churches, family grave tombs are being erected, and among small objects appear those with clear Christian symbolism. From the IV century, Naissus is confirmed as an episcopal place, and in the period IV-VI century names of six episcopes, participants of Ecumenical councils, were noted.
The archaeological remains of ecclesiastical architecture from the period of Early Christianity are not numerous. There are no reliable data about the early churches in Singidunum and Viminacium, since these two metropolises are still insufficiently researched.
Thanks to the rescue research carried out prior to the construction of Iron Gate I and II hydropower plants, we now know more about the intensity of church building and the way these structures looked. The excavations unearthed the remains of churches’ foundations in Čezava fort (Novae), in Donji Milanovac (Taliata), Boljetin (Smorna) and Vajuga-Karaula. These are single-naved structures with a smaller nartex, an entrance on the west side and one or two annexes, most often on the south side. In the church in Taliata, in the altar area, there was subselium, whereas in Novae and Smorna there were baptisterium. These churches were erected during the reign of Justinian I (527–565), likely during his renewal of the Limes in the 40s of the 6th century, but were demolished around the end of that same century, in the onrush of the Avars and Slavs.
The discovered glass lamps belong to the most frequent types of cylindrical, conical of hemispherical vessels, with a hollow foot or a button-shaped bottom. The glass window panels suggest a wide-spread tendency of recycling raw materials – mostly of a relatively poor quality. The archaeological and archaeometric researches have provided certain indications on the existence of local glass workshops, which were able to meet the needs of the local population for objects made of glass, possibly used in the sacral context as well.
The Limes regions in Pannonia Inferior and Moesia Superior had an important role in the economic and political life of these provinces, because of the permanent presence of the Roman army and state administration, and also thanks to the convenient geographical position and numerous natural resources. Along with the establishment of the Roman government in the Pannonia Inferior and Moesia Superior, diverse goods from different parts of the Empire began to arrive, and craft production by Roman standards was established in the borderland areas as well. At the same time, autochthonous, traditional techniques of production were not neglected. In this paper, we will offer a brief overview of the archaeological and epigraphic evidence for craft production of objects made from clay, stone and osseous raw materials, related to the Limes on the present-day territory of Serbia.
Keywords: craft production, workshops, craftsperson, ceramic technology, stone objects, osseous technology
There are different assumptions on the function of these items. We would agree with the researchers who assume that these items were used in textile production, for weaving, because they are often found with items linked to looms (whorls, weights) and wool processing (combs, scissors, needles et al.). On the basis of findings from Stobi, it is assumed that those were heddle holders. The findings of items made of bone, deer antlers and metal tools indicate that textile production was a highly developed and very important economic activity at Gradina on Jelica. Considering the diffused topography of these findings, in several units of different parts of the fortified city and suburb, it is possible that there were smaller weaving workshops, for the needs of the local population, clergy, possibly members of monastic communities and military crews in charge of the safety of this place.
Roman citizens in Singidunum (Belgrade) lived in good conditions in both the town and the surrounding villages. From archeological excavations of the area of canabae and castrum, 28 various medical mainly surgical objects have been found. Also several medical objects have been found in various settlements, smaller fortifications or villae rusticae of ager Singidonensis. Even though at the main castrum of Singidunum no hospital has been discovered yet, just south of Belgrade, epigraphy from auxiliary fort Demessus (Guberevac/Stojnik), at the mining area at Kosmaj, has the word valetudinarium inscribed on it.
Presence of some graves of doctors and pharmacists and their discovered equipment testifies that medical care was at the highest possible level in Viminacium (Stari Kostolac), capital of Moesia Superior. In several tombs in Viminacium many surgical instruments from I to III century have been found. Medical instruments of an eye doctor - "medicus et chirurgus ocularius" were excavated on the southern city-necropolis.
Downstream from Viminacium several surgical instruments are found on different sites: in Ledarta (Ram), Cuppae (Golubac), Castrum Novae (Čezava), Smorna (Boljetin), Taliata (Donji Milanovac) and at Transdierna (Tekija). At the site of Diana (Karataš) most of the medical instruments have been found dating from the II and III century, mainly made of bronze.
Well preserved traces of sewer system and water pipes even aqueducts were found not only in the town territory of Singidunum, Margum, Viminacium and Taliata but also further away. Interestingly in Singidunum, Margum,Viminacium, Porečka Reka, Transdierna, Diana and Egeta (Brza Palanka) the existence of thermae and balnea was archaeologically or epigraphically documented.
During the systematic exploration of this area, five church edifices, a crypt (martyrium?), over 65 brick lined tombs, a large number of brick lined graves and around 300 graves of the deceased, interred in the ground, have been identified. Between the tombs and in the free spaces, the deceased were buried in simple grave holes or in wooden coffins. The area has revealed different types of sepulchral structures, building methods, and materials that were used, as well as the funeral practices of the inhabitants of Naissus in Late Antiquity, during Early Christianity. The wealth of grave goods and inventory suggests that the population lived in a time of social and economic prosperity.
The necropolis of Naissus in Jagodin Mala represents a well organized cemetery, with regular rows of graves and tombs, whose number is the largest in the vicinity of grave basilicas, which were erected at a small distance one from another. Five such buildings were registered so far by the archaeological research and the most important one is the basilica with a crypt (V-VI c.).
The most luxury grave constructions belong to barrel vaulted tombs and tombs with arcosolia and calotte, sometimes decorated with wall painting (representations of St Paul and St Peter, IV-V c.; Christ monogram in the laurel wreath, cca 382 AD; etc). Richness of the grave goods and inventory indicates that city population lived in socially and economically prosperous times.
The objective of archaeological investigations at Saldum was the exploration of the area enclosed within the ramparts of the Early Byzantine fortification so the data concerning the complete area of this site in all its phases remained unknown to the investigators.
It was possible to distinguish five horizons of life at Saldum, from the 1st to the end of the 6th century.
PHASE I – Foundation of the settlement at Saldum is related to the period of the Flavians (68 – 96). The earliest layers at the site have not been investigated completely and neither the size of the settlements nor the structures in it were not defined. The analysis of the layer contents and the contemporary horizons it is possible to assume the existence of timber structures with floors of rammed earth and mortar. The portable finds indicate heterogeneous ethnic and social status of the inhabitants living at Saldum at that time. The coexistence of native population and bearers of the early Roman culture is confirmed by the pottery finds where we encountered parallel appearance of autochthonous Dacian pottery, to a small degree the La Tène (Celtic) pottery forms while to a greater extent were encountered the luxurious early Roman vessels (terra sigillata, terra nigra, small bowls and beakers with thin walls, marbled and glazed early Imperial pottery), which had been most probably imported from north Italic and central and south Gaulish centers. From this period also date the finds of personal equipment of the soldiers – casseroles with trifoliate mouth and with stamp probably of the Gaulish master CARVS and fragments of the scabbard of the sword of Pompeii type.
PHASE II – Period from Trajan until the middle of the 2nd century when the first stone fortification was erected. However, the fortification type (wall thickness between 1 and 1.30 m, without corner towers typical of the Trajan’s fortifications) does not suggest the military character of the structure but it is possible that military vicus from the Flavian period got the encompassing walls because of another entirely practical reason. In other words, it is possible that the customs office – portorium was established at Saldum at that time. It could be explained by the fact that the result of Trajan’s Dacian wars and opening of the Dacian frontier towards Moesia was the intensive arrival of civilians and goods and that Saldum was an ideal place for crossing the Danube. Archaeological finds, which confirm the continuity of the military vicus are very abundant and include a continuous presence of luxurious imported vessels from the western imperial and Pannonian workshops (terra sigillata, fine pottery, pottery lamps, glass vessels, military equipment and so on). The money, which confirms this phase includes the coins minted in the reign of Hadrian (117-138) and Antoninus Pius (138-161).
PHASE III – The continuity of life at Saldum could be followed also during the 2nd and 3rd centuries and from this period come many archaeological finds. Stone fortification (?) was still in use while the interior got more solid infrastructure (paved streets). This phase could be divided into two subphases, which could be distinguished in the archaeological material. The flooding of the terrain of considerable intensity (substantial layer of the river deposit) is confirmed during the entire period and certain traces of destruction including remains of burnt down timber structures, collapsed stones and sporadically burnt soil have also been encountered.
Phase III a – the time of the Severi (193-235) confirmed primarily by the coin finds and many pottery finds.
Phase III b – the time of Gallienus (253-268), Claudius II (268-270), Aurelianus (270-275 and Probus (276-282) that is, judging by the finds, the period of the greatest rebuilding at Saldum. At that time the detachments of the legion IV Flavia were stationed at Saldum as it is confirmed by bricks with stamps. Reconstruction, building activities and strengthening of the defensive structure were probably carried out under the supervision of praepositus Hermogenes.
After abandonment of Dacia in 271/272 Saldum obviously did not lose its strategic and functional importance judging by the finds, which suggest the presence of soldiers and civilians also in the following decade of that century. The function of Saldum continued to be the control of the land and river traffic – towing of ships, control of the crossing and certainly the portorium was still functioning for some time.
Among the pottery finds are prevailing the vessels of provincial manufacture, particularly bowls and plates and to a smaller amount the vessels for preparing, storing and transportation of food. Among the luxurious ware still popular were the terra sigillata bowls, which reached the Saldum market from Westerndorf, Rheinzabern and the workshop center Viminacium-Margum. Vessels used for storage and transportation (amphorae and pithoi) arrived from the Black Sea area or from the western workshops and this testify to the dynamic commercial connections with different parts of the Empire. As western imports are also considered cylindrical glass beakers and lamps with stamps of masters Cassius, Fortis and Sextus.
PHASE IV –New although short-lived but very intensive period (364-378/380) commenced with the restoration of limes by Valentinian and Valens and settling of considerable army forces. Saldum was of the type of small open settlements covering an area of around 2 hectares eventually defended by the timber palisades. The residential and economic structures (aboveground and semi dug out houses, workshops and storehouses) had been constructed of timber and daub with floors of rammed earth. The newly arrived inhabitants were Romanized population – limitanei with their families and their activities besides defending of this section of the limes also included economic activities directed at satisfying their own needs. The analysis of archaeological finds revealed that they were engaged in agriculture, stock-breeding, fishing, working of wood, leather and hide, clothes manufacturing and in production of the metal (iron and lead) objects. The archaeological finds (pottery, glass vessels, lamps) suggest that this Romanized population arrived at Saldum from some of neighboring areas, more likely Pannonia than the Lower Danube basin where the influences of the Chernyahov culture are conspicuous and such elements are lacking at Saldum.
Settlement at Saldum was most probably established around AD 365, it existed for only about fifteen years and was destroyed in the Gothic attacks in 378-380 judging by the hoards of coins fused together as a result of great conflagration. In the layer of destruction were found around twenty coin hoards and many scattered coin pieces (about 550 specimens in total) that indicate regular paying off of the Saldum military garrison with the coins minted mostly in Siscia and Thessalonica.
PHASE V – Phase V dates from the 6th century and it is possible to distinguish two subphases – time of Justinian and second half of the 6th century. The analysis of relationship between the stratigraphy and architectural remains revealed that fortification was constructed in the time of Justinian I (527-565) and that earlier architecture (stone walls from phase II-III) was only partiality incorporated in the new structure. The castellum was built according to the principles and recommendations for construction of the Early Byzantine fortifications. According to its total area of 0.14 ha it is classified among smaller fortifications for accommodation of the auxiliary units or numeri. Four towers were erected at the corners and three of them were circular while the fourth one, in the northeast, is rectangular with the apse within the eastern wall. It is possible that this tower had been used as church because of its distinct shape and orientation. In a sense it is possible, on the basis of the portable finds, to make a distinction between the garrisons at Saldum in the time of its construction and in the second half of the 6th century. The reason for this could be found in the general situation in the state and in the army in particular as well as in the strength and organization of the limes defense. The garrison in the time of Justinian was engaged exclusively in the military activities and was regularly supplied from the distribution centers while certain degree of ruralization is conspicuous in the material from the second half/end of the 6th century when supplying of the army was more difficult because of permanent barbarian invasions so the soldiers besides their regular activities had to take care of their sustenance and to provide food by hunting and fishing.
The repertoire of the 6th century pottery vessels is very modest and is based on the local 4th century traditions with addition of the amphorae from the Pontus region that were present in great quantities on the sites in the Middle Danube provinces. The coin finds include the issues of Justinian I and Justin II while the latest specimen is the follis of Maurice from 592/3 minted in Constantinople and this could be taken as approximate date of the end of life at Saldum as also at most other fortifications as a consequence of the Avarian-Slavic attacks probably in 595/6 and it was the end of life at this place.
former Roman Empire, now stretching over
7,500 km through 20 countries that surround the
Mediterranean Sea, making it the largest and
longest monument in the world. If in Serbia is
not the most beautiful part, then certainly it is the
most exciting. Archaeologists in the area of the Iron
Gates in Serbia were already pretty busy in the second half
of the twentieth century during the construction
of Hydroelectric Power Stations Iron Gate I and
Iron Gate II, using the last chance to explore and
salvage what is left after several millennia of great
cultures that had developed along the Danube. In
the world were then sent images of the oldest stone
sculptures from Lepenski Vir, of remains the longest
bridge built in antiquity near nowadays Kostol, of
Roman road cut into the rocks of the Iron Gates
Gorge, of moving Trajan’s tablet... Items enriched
the museums, knowledge about ancient cultures
have influenced the new generation researchers
and new cultural theories, and ancient heritage is,
unfortunately, largely submerged and remaining
photos and drawings are the only testimonies of
their existence.
The building that was discovered in 1970 represents the late Roman bath (balneum), built most likely at the end of 3rd or in the early 4th century, which was in use until the year AD 378 and the invasion of the Western Goths. Two phases are evident in the construction of the building. The building was built on an elevated river plateau sloping to the southeast, 600 m from the Morava river bed towards the south. Rectangular in shape, longitudinally oriented east-west and its eastern part turns 5 degrees to the north. The maximum length of the building along the east-west axis is 22.60 m, along the north-south axis 18.45 m, with total area of 340 square meters. Building has had at least eight rooms of various sizes and purposes, organized into three series (northern, central and south). In the construction of the baths parts of the epigraphical limestone monuments, probably gravestones, from the 2nd or 3rd century were secondarily used. Hypocaust piers, vaulting over the canals, door frames and floors were built of brick. In order to isolate from the moisture, the walls are coated with hydrostatic mortar. In the rubble of the building the remains of fresco decoration (traces of blue, red and ocher colours) were registered.
Portable findings from the late Roman baths in Čačak are quite humble. These are the findings of pottery and glass vessels, a small number of glass jewellery and metal objects (tools, calk, bronze sheaths) and coins.
Considering that the archaeological research found only baths, it is difficult to assume whether it represented part of a rural estate (villa rustica) or a settlement (vicus). It is less likely that it was a part of a military fortification or a fortified road station.
A number of inscriptions found in Cacak and its vicinity mention beneficiarii consularis from the second and third century A.D. Beneficiarii consularis protected mining districts and supervised ore transports in the region. In the last decades of the second century, after 170, the border station was garrisoned by the newly formed cohort II milliaria Delmatarum, under the command of Ti. Claudius Gallus. Tiberius Claudius Gallus should be identified with the senator of the same name, consul suffectus and governor of Numidia and Dacia at the beginning of the third century.
The collection of the museum kept the altars dedicated to Roman deities Jupiter, Mars, Diana, Genius loci and to Egyptian deities Serapis and Isis.
A special group of decorative floors from the buildings of Romuliana consists of those decorated with cut marble tiles (sectilia pavimenta). The central part of the most representative room in the palatial complex – aula was decorated with this precious technique, as well as the appertaining two stibadia (triconch and tetraconch). Out of the floors decorated with this technique from Palace 1, only the substructure and imprint of tiles in the mortar remained. A reconstruction of motifs used was made based on an analysis of those elements, first and foremost based on the most approximate analogy, chronologically and stylistically – Galerius’ imperial complex in Thessaloniki.
The aim of the archaeological excavations was to define the remains of the southern rampart, and its construction method, as well as to determine the stratigraphy extra muros, on the southern side of the defended area. The discovered rampart was built with the use of massive stone slabs, organized in cells, with the outer face plastered with rectangular stone slabs. It belongs to the type of city ramparts from Late Antiquity, recorded in several major cities of the Balkans and Asia Minor. Parallels can be found for example in the construction of the ramparts of Chersonesus in the Bosphorus Kingdom (Chesonesus, Sevastopol) (4th-5th c. CE). The research in Prahovo also yielded data on the existence of the late antique necropolis extra muros, from which seven graves of inhumated deceased, oriented in the west-east direction, were registered.
Keywords: Prahovo, Aquae, Roman limes, Middle Danube, rampart, city walls, graves, necropolis, late antiquity.
Key words: Early Christianity, ecclesiastical overview, fourth– sixth centuries, limes, churches, tombs, wall painting, sarcophagi.
Keywords: Early Christian objects, local and imported products,
Middle Danube Limes, 4th to the beginning of 7th century.
The city went through economic, political and demographic flourishment since the end of the III century, and especially throughout the IV century, up to middle of the V century, when the city was severely destroyed by Huns in 441 AD, and never fully recovered. Naissus especially reached the peak of its urbanistic and artistical flourishement during the reign of Constantine I (306-337), born in Naissus, who magnifice ornavit his birth place. Another testimony on the city’s importance are numerous visits, longer or shorter staying of the most important rulers of the IV century.
The earliest mention of the Christian communities in Naissus originates from the IV century. From this period the first Christian monuments begin to appear on the city territory. Basilicae, graveyard churches, family grave tombs are being erected, and among small objects appear those with clear Christian symbolism. From the IV century, Naissus is confirmed as an episcopal place, and in the period IV-VI century names of six episcopes, participants of Ecumenical councils, were noted.
The archaeological remains of ecclesiastical architecture from the period of Early Christianity are not numerous. There are no reliable data about the early churches in Singidunum and Viminacium, since these two metropolises are still insufficiently researched.
Thanks to the rescue research carried out prior to the construction of Iron Gate I and II hydropower plants, we now know more about the intensity of church building and the way these structures looked. The excavations unearthed the remains of churches’ foundations in Čezava fort (Novae), in Donji Milanovac (Taliata), Boljetin (Smorna) and Vajuga-Karaula. These are single-naved structures with a smaller nartex, an entrance on the west side and one or two annexes, most often on the south side. In the church in Taliata, in the altar area, there was subselium, whereas in Novae and Smorna there were baptisterium. These churches were erected during the reign of Justinian I (527–565), likely during his renewal of the Limes in the 40s of the 6th century, but were demolished around the end of that same century, in the onrush of the Avars and Slavs.
The discovered glass lamps belong to the most frequent types of cylindrical, conical of hemispherical vessels, with a hollow foot or a button-shaped bottom. The glass window panels suggest a wide-spread tendency of recycling raw materials – mostly of a relatively poor quality. The archaeological and archaeometric researches have provided certain indications on the existence of local glass workshops, which were able to meet the needs of the local population for objects made of glass, possibly used in the sacral context as well.
The Limes regions in Pannonia Inferior and Moesia Superior had an important role in the economic and political life of these provinces, because of the permanent presence of the Roman army and state administration, and also thanks to the convenient geographical position and numerous natural resources. Along with the establishment of the Roman government in the Pannonia Inferior and Moesia Superior, diverse goods from different parts of the Empire began to arrive, and craft production by Roman standards was established in the borderland areas as well. At the same time, autochthonous, traditional techniques of production were not neglected. In this paper, we will offer a brief overview of the archaeological and epigraphic evidence for craft production of objects made from clay, stone and osseous raw materials, related to the Limes on the present-day territory of Serbia.
Keywords: craft production, workshops, craftsperson, ceramic technology, stone objects, osseous technology
There are different assumptions on the function of these items. We would agree with the researchers who assume that these items were used in textile production, for weaving, because they are often found with items linked to looms (whorls, weights) and wool processing (combs, scissors, needles et al.). On the basis of findings from Stobi, it is assumed that those were heddle holders. The findings of items made of bone, deer antlers and metal tools indicate that textile production was a highly developed and very important economic activity at Gradina on Jelica. Considering the diffused topography of these findings, in several units of different parts of the fortified city and suburb, it is possible that there were smaller weaving workshops, for the needs of the local population, clergy, possibly members of monastic communities and military crews in charge of the safety of this place.
Roman citizens in Singidunum (Belgrade) lived in good conditions in both the town and the surrounding villages. From archeological excavations of the area of canabae and castrum, 28 various medical mainly surgical objects have been found. Also several medical objects have been found in various settlements, smaller fortifications or villae rusticae of ager Singidonensis. Even though at the main castrum of Singidunum no hospital has been discovered yet, just south of Belgrade, epigraphy from auxiliary fort Demessus (Guberevac/Stojnik), at the mining area at Kosmaj, has the word valetudinarium inscribed on it.
Presence of some graves of doctors and pharmacists and their discovered equipment testifies that medical care was at the highest possible level in Viminacium (Stari Kostolac), capital of Moesia Superior. In several tombs in Viminacium many surgical instruments from I to III century have been found. Medical instruments of an eye doctor - "medicus et chirurgus ocularius" were excavated on the southern city-necropolis.
Downstream from Viminacium several surgical instruments are found on different sites: in Ledarta (Ram), Cuppae (Golubac), Castrum Novae (Čezava), Smorna (Boljetin), Taliata (Donji Milanovac) and at Transdierna (Tekija). At the site of Diana (Karataš) most of the medical instruments have been found dating from the II and III century, mainly made of bronze.
Well preserved traces of sewer system and water pipes even aqueducts were found not only in the town territory of Singidunum, Margum, Viminacium and Taliata but also further away. Interestingly in Singidunum, Margum,Viminacium, Porečka Reka, Transdierna, Diana and Egeta (Brza Palanka) the existence of thermae and balnea was archaeologically or epigraphically documented.
During the systematic exploration of this area, five church edifices, a crypt (martyrium?), over 65 brick lined tombs, a large number of brick lined graves and around 300 graves of the deceased, interred in the ground, have been identified. Between the tombs and in the free spaces, the deceased were buried in simple grave holes or in wooden coffins. The area has revealed different types of sepulchral structures, building methods, and materials that were used, as well as the funeral practices of the inhabitants of Naissus in Late Antiquity, during Early Christianity. The wealth of grave goods and inventory suggests that the population lived in a time of social and economic prosperity.
The largest city necropolis in the period of Late Antiquity was formed on the loess plateau on the right bank of the Ni{ava, east of the fortress, along the road to Ratiaria (fig. 56). Since it is located in today’s city quarter of Jagodin Mala, it became known by that name in the literature. In Late Antiquity, this area had been used intensively for burials, from the end of the 4th century to the end of the 6th or beginning of the 7th century.11 Systematic investigation of the necropolis in Jagodin Mala has been conducted intermittently, for no less than eight decades.
In the Late Antiquity period, a state workshop (officina) was active in the city, producing objects made of noble metals, and it gathered the best craftsmen from various parts of the Empire; also, a document called Notitia dignitatum mentions a manufactory which produced items for the needs of the Roman army.
In the 6th century, during Justinian’s Restoration of the Empire, 40 fortifications were restored or built anew at Naissus and its’ vicinity, which shows the economic and military importance of the city and its’ territory.
The oldest published works in the field of archaeology of antique Naissus result from the researchers’ personal interests in certain types of finds, rather than from a systematic study of a certain site or region. The interest in the epigraphic finds is documented as early as in the 16th century, when the learned writers on their travels from West Europe to the Ottoman countries left behind valuable notes on the new archaeological discoveries at the construction sites on the area of the city.
The foundation of the National Museum in Niš in 1933 marked the beginning of the first large-scale, systematic research of the late Roman necropolis in Jagodin Mala, conducted by trained amateurs. It was only after World War II, when the museum in Niš brought professional archaeologists on board and when, in 1947, the Institute of Archaeology in Belgrade (an institution whose purpose was the scientific study of the remains of Roman and Late Roman Naissus) was founded, that professional, far-reaching work on a systematic research, interpretation and presentation of the discovered architectural remains and movable finds of this important necropolis in the midlands of the province of Moesia Superior and Dacia Mediterranea could begin. The foundation of the Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments in Niš made it possible to conduct both the archaeological monitoring of the earthworks and the rescue archaeological research on the area of this necropolis, nowadays densely populated.
With the use of modern research methods and an interdisciplinary approach, the research of the necropolis in Jagodin Mala entered a new stage in the 21st century. The work of archaeologists is complemented not only by architectural and art historians and conservationists, but also by geophysicists, who discover archaeological structures using non-destructive methods, physical anthropologists, who research the human osteological materials in all aspects of contemporary science, as well as by the specialists from various other fields - archaeozoologists, archaeobotanists and others. Owing to such interdisciplinary research, a vast number of works has been published and exhibitions in Niš and Belgrade were held on the occasion of 1700th anniversary of the Edict of Milan. Nevertheless, although the research of the necropolis has been in progress for such a long time, due to the limited space for excavations, but also limited funds, the necropolis has not been fully researched in all of its segments. The unearthed finds, which yield abundant information on the funerary practices, social status, but also the needs and necessities of the Late Roman society of Naissus from the middle of the 4th to the beginning of the 7th century for the most part remain condemned to dilapidation due to numerous institutional weaknesses and inadequate protective measures.
Somewhat richer data on the Late Antique period were obtained from research of the necropolis situated along the via militaris for Ratiaria, on the area of the modern city quarter in Jagodin Mala. Approximately 300 graves of freely buried graves, over 60 family tombs and four ecclesial buildings were discovered, as well as rich portable archaeological material, from the 4th to the end of the 6th / beginning of the 7th century A.D.
The largest number of grave units researched in 2009–2010 belongs to burial types of plain, shallow pits (formae), dug into the layer of virgin soil (19 graves), in which mobile findings were seldom registered. The research showed that the deceased individuals were buried in more or less regular rows and lines. Their greatest concentration can be seen in the vicinity of richer, built tomb constructions. Graves of freely buried individuals certainly had a smaller burial mound and some kind of a grave marker, that were not registered in a single case during the research, however, which served as an orientation to those responsible for burials while preparing new grave spaces. There is only one case where the skull of the primarily buried individual was moved from the primary position when a newer burial was being dug. In these burials, the deceased were oriented in the western-eastern axis, except in one case, where the individual is laid to rest in the southern-northern axis, with long limbs of the left side of the body being placed across the right ones. This practice in not uncommon in Late Antiquity, and it does not necessarily represent a pagan way of burial. There are four more case registered at the necropolis of Jagodin Mala, as well as in nearby Mediana (Brzi Brod), and examples can be found at necropoles of Sirmium and Singidunum as well (3rd–4th century).
With burials in cyst graves and pits with covers made of bricks, tegulae and imbrices (6 graves) no signs of robberies or bone dislocation were noted. However, the most interesting examples are those from built grave constructions – five graves in the shape of sarcophagus (chamosorion) and two semi-cylindrical barrel vaulted tombs. Built graves in the shape sarcophagus are made as constructions with shallow (1) or deeper chambers (4), in which one, two or several individuals were buried. In the case of the shallow built grave G-15, of smaller dimensions (outer dimensions 1,60 x 0,75 x 0,32 m, inner dimensions 1,27 x 0,47-0,49 m), the burial of an individual who was 1,50 m long was noted. Due to small dimensions of the grave chamber, the western wall was pierced through, so that the deceased could be placed within the chamber in stretched position, and due to the narrow space, hands of the deceased were placed very closely to the body. The reason for such a burial remains within the domain of speculations. Graves were built purposefully, and it was usually done at the moment of an individual’s death, or, probably, they were commissioned in lifetime, but in any case, those paying the expenses of a funeral had to provide data on the necessary measurements of a grave chamber. It is possible that there was a misunderstanding between the gravediggers and the commissioner, or that a burial of a person of small height – or a younger individual – had been cancelled. The built tomb could have been sold or conceded to other persons, who buried an individual who was longer than the chamber.
At the time they were discovered, southern parts of built graves in the southern part of the researched area (graves G-18 and G-19) were severely damaged by the construction of a private building before the outbreak of the Second World War. In the case of grave G I/3-4, it was noted that during the funeral of a deceased, laid to rest in stretched position, bones of another deceased were orderly placed along his right side. It is possible that those were the bones of the primarily buried individual or the skeleton of a deceased that were brought from another location to this grave. Among those most interesting are the finds or two semi-cylindrical barrel vaulted tombs. A tomb of inner dimensions 2,3 x 1,8 x 1,67 m (G I/5-10) served for the burial of at least ten individuals, which were most probably laid to rest in wooden coffins, out of which preserved iron pegs and pieces of decomposed wood remained. Works on modern infrastructure damaged this tomb on the eastern and western part, and it is possible that there was also some penetrations through the dome in the Late Antique or some more modern period.
The tomb (G II/38), in which two individuals were buried, was registered with a stone monolith sealed with mortar in the entrance ledge. However, when the monolith was removed, it was noted that bones of the deceased were ransacked and mobile findings missing. It is possible to assume that during the second funeral no attention was paid to the bones of the primarily buried individual, and that the bones were dislocated on that occasion. It is also possible to assume that, after the second burial, people who performed it, either some of the gravediggers (libitinarii, fossores) or family members, reopened the tomb to retrieve the treasure. On that occasion, the stone monolith on the entrance could have been carefully removed, finds collected, and the pectoral bone of the primarily buried deceased accidentally or purposefully dropped near the entrance. In order to cover up a possible robbery, the monolith was placed back into the ledge and mortared again. Such practice has not been recorded so far on other tombs discovered in the area of Jagodin Mala.
Upper parts of graves, especially the semi-cylindrical barrel vaulted tombs and built tombs in the shape of sarcophagus, were visible in the ground level in the Late Antique period, and they could have attracted the attention of robbers, local thieves, migrants and other peoples that didn’t practice Christian burial customs. Based on the examples of these tombs, we assume that they were robbed by tomb raiders (latrones or lestai), people from the margins of Roman society, belonging to lower social classes and marginalized communities. Despite a period of prosperity in Naissus in the 4th and the first half of the 5th century, there was obviously a large discrepancy between social classes. Examples of grave architecture and rich personal equipment of deceased individuals at the necropolis of Jagodin Mala clearly separate the burials of rich inhabitants to those of poor ones. When it comes to luxurious grave forms and rich material and personal equipment, it is possible to note a tendency of showing more of a wealth status they wished for, than the actual situation of the deceased and his heirs. The wish to display wealth, on the other hand, attracted those who wanted to put their hands on it, through robbing and desecrating graves, which was a widespread practice in the Late Antique period, due to great poverty and the ever declining level of social control, which is notable on the examples of tombs and graves from this city necropolis of Naissus.
Key words: mosaic pavement, opus tessellatum, Mediana, Late Antiquity, IV century AD.
In the Gamzigrad mosaics (309-311 A.D.) are depicted hunting dogs probably of Laconian type of tracking dog (canis sagaces), which could be used for hunting hares but also big game, including beasts.
The hunting scenes in the mosaics in the imperial palace represent materialization of the virtue (virtus), which Galerius cherished as emperor and soldier. The mosaic scenes unite various elements of diverse mosaic schools and influences (East Mediterranean and North African first of all), but in visual expression and chronologically they are something between these trends.
Iako dokumentacija sa iskopavanja nedostaje, a tehnički snimci su u pojedinim segmentima nepouzdani, uspelo se doći do preciznijih podataka o izgledu objekta, funkcionalnoj analizi, mogućim prepravkama i korišćenjima u različitim fazama, do pretpostavke o postojanju međuspratne konstrukcije, zahvaljujući čemu su i urađeni 2D i 3D modeli građevine.
Terme u Čačku sa površinom od oko 340 m2 spadaju u red manjih kupatila, a paralele za njega nalazimo na nizu kasnoantičkih nalazišta (Beljina-Čačak, Guberevac, Idimum, Romuliana, Timacum Minus, Mediana, Bace, Žujince i drugi). Najverovatnije je nastalo krajem III, ili pre, početkom IV veka, i trajalo je do 80-ih godina IV veka, na šta prvenstveno ukazuju numizmatički nalazi. Pokretni arheološki nalazi su relativno malobrojni i uglavnom se odnose na lokalne provincijske kasnoantičke zanatske proizvode (keramičke i staklene posude, delove nakita, alat i slično).
The statue from Bresnica belongs to the type of naked Mercury widely spread all over Roman Empire. This example belongs to the variant of type characterized by the little wings coming out directly from hair, attributes in hands – money bag (marsupium) and a stick (caduceus). According to the not very perfect working out of the statue and non proportionality in presenting anatomy, it is sorted out to the group of mass produced products of medium quality. A near stylistic analogy with this finding is the statue of Mercury from Heerlen from the province Germania Inferior, more precisely dated by the money of the emperor Tetricus (270–273) which represents in the best way artistic and craftsmen trends in working out of this kind of objects during III century, in fact middle – second half of III century when this example from the collection of the National Museum in Cacak was created. Other examples of naked Mercury, analogue to the statue from Bresnica are mainly concentrated in the regions of provinces Germania and northwest Gallia in the valleys of Rhine and Mosel, thus we can consider this statue, with great doubts, a product of some of those workshops, however it is also possible that the model or a mould for the statue comes from those regions and that the statue itself was worked out in one of the local workshops.
In this work there is a discussion about the purpose of the presented vessels. It is a set of vessels used in everyday life but they also talk about the cult of the inhabitants in the Roman period. These sets of vessels were used for hands washing before meals, or sacrifice act. Sets of vessels were recorded on beneficiary monuments in provinces of the west part of the Roman Empire (Britannia, Germania Superior, Noricum and Pannonia Superior), while in eastern provinces there is a lack of these vessels. However, we find images of the set of vessels on the monuments in the eastern part of the province Dalmatia, in the region of Kosjeric, Uzice and Pozega, which were settled with Celtic population.
The jug and a vessel with a handle from the ara in Jezdina belong to Canterbury-type of sets according to the classification of H.U. Nuber. This type was made of bronze and was widely spread all over Roman Empire, especially during 2nd-3rd century and it was produced in Italic, Gallic and Pannonian workshops, and it was also imitated in ceramic forms, recorded in legion centers from Britain to Bulgaria.
In this paper will be offered an overview of the antler production and use on the borders in Upper Moesia province. In Singidunum, on the location of the Castrum, an antler workshop was discovered, with large quantities of antler segments with traces of manufacture. In the Iron Gates region, antler artefacts were discovered at several fortifications, and the typological repertoire included awls, needles, spindle whorls, etc. Particularly numerous are combs (pecten), discovered at several sites, including Saldum, Diana, Novae, Pontes, and mainly originating from Late Antiquity period.
The find from octagon room most likely represents decoration of furniture (chest or chair), from the mid or second half of the 4th century AD.
On the territory of Serbia, the Roman Limes follows the course of the Danube for some 450 km. In this section, a large number of encampments for hosting legions (Singidunum and Viminacium) and auxiliary troops had been built, as well as numerous watchtowers and customs points, bigger and smaller settlements, travel stations, and also a high-quality road infrastructure (a network of land and river routes). Out of ca 120 known sites, 80 has been archaeologically researched, and a little over 20 of them will find their place on the final UNESCO list. The Republic of Serbia has taken part in the process of nominating its part of the Limes since 2013.
The Roman Limes on the territory of Serbia became the focal point of the world scientific public also because the prestigious, twenty-fourth Limes Congress was organized in Belgrade and Viminacium (Stari Kostolac) in September 2018. This congress, which has been held since 1949, represents one of the most important archaeological conventions. In 1961, Yugoslavia was the host of the fifth Limes Congress, in which 69 researchers took part, and 19 reports were presented. In the 24th Limes Congress in 2018, more than 360 scientists participated, who presented their papers in 27 topical sessions and on poster presentations. On the occasion of the Congress, an exhibition was held at the SASA Gallery in Belgrade and a two-tome book of Proceedings is being prepared with papers dealing with the Limes on the territory of Serbia, to be published by the Institute of Archaeology in Belgrade.
What attracted the most attention at the congress were sessions dedicated to military units, equipment and arms, tactics, fortification systems and construction works on the Limes. The largest number of presentations, mostly from the provinces of the Balkans, dealt with the transformations of the Limes in the Late Antiquity period, from which numerous traces of military fortifications and units from the last centuries of the Roman rule have been registered. Different aspects of life and death at the Limes were discussed at sessions dedicated to production, industry, religion, crafts, health, burials, while a smaller number of presentations dealt with regional topics, evaluations of older researches or promotion and popularization of the Limes in modern times. Numerous topical sessions, diverging from the practice of previous congresses (presentation of research results on the basis of the sequence of Roman provinces), proved to be, on this occasion as well, a successful communication model for researchers from various countries, and they also provided very substantial and interesting discussions, which will find their place in the Proceedings, which is being prepared.
A particularly important and attention worthy group of findings consists of remains of floor surfaces decorated with one of the mosaic techniques. Making mosaics in ancient times required investing a large amount of time in preparation and execution, from preparing substrate layers, to the final execution of carpets and represented motifs. Durability and use depended on the quality of the substrate. The types of mosaic carpets were chosen depending on the purpose of the premises and economic possibilities of the patrons. Almost all of the mosaic techniques known to the Roman world are recorded at the sites in Serbia.
The mosaics, primarily mosaic pavements, become vulnerable structures after archaeological excavations and removal of all layers that protected them, making them exposed to the daily processes of decay. To prevent these processes, it is necessary to apply different methods of preventive and permanent protection, and the methodology itself is dictated by numerous factors. The book that is presented to the
expert audience is the true practicum of detecting, monitoring, maintaining and handling this type of archaeological heritage, coming from the everyday, rich practice of conservators and researchers.
The excavations included large number of already known important sites from the Roman and Medieval times, such as system of defensive forts from Traian Dacian wars, but also led to the discoveries of a series of very important prehistoric sites, including the discovery of the first traces of the Mesolithic in the region.
In this paper we will explore the course of these excavations and the consequences and impact they had on the archaeology in Yugoslavia. New discoveries changed then-current theoretical models and interpretations. Furthermore, the methodology of excavations changed considerably, in particular, these projects initiated the establishing the minimum requirements for documentation of excavations and the creation of standardised methodological practices. Also, they had considerable impact on development of institutions, in particular The Institute of Archaeology, as well as impact on personal carriers. Last but not least, foundations for regional and international cooperation were laid. Cooperation was established with archaeologists from western countries, in particular with experts in subdisciplines that were not practiced in Yugoslavia – anthropology, zooarcaheology, etc., but also with archaeologists in the region, including the collaboration with Romanian archaeologists that were excavating on the other Danube bank, which was particularly politically sensitive at the time.
We are glad to inform you that an international e-conference on bone objects in the Hellenistic, Roman and Early Byzantine in the eastern Mediterranean, Near East, Black Sea area and Balkans will take place on May 14, 2025 on Zoom.us. Ancient bone objects were found in relatively large quantities in the entire Mediterranean, from Spain to Syria and Egypt to France, where they were manufactured between the Neolithic and Medieval periods. The art of carving animal bones involves especially antler and horn. However, the spectrum of the worked bone objects recovered from Anatolia, rest of the eastern Mediterranean, Near East, the Black Sea area and Balkans is very varied, and reflects different characteristics of Graeco-Roman and Byzantine daily life. In these areas they were also utilised as grave goods secondarily. They were exported or imported over the entire ancient Graeco-Roman and Byzantine worlds.
In this conference papers dealing with ancient artefacts or objects manufactured by worked bone, antler, ivory, animal teeth, mother of pearl and cockleshell will be included. Main material groups made by bones are as follows: items connected to personal grooming, weaponry, artifacts used in to spinning or in pottery decoration, artifacts related to cosmetics, jewellery, combs, pins for clothing and women’s hair, items related to dressmaking and textile (particularly sewing needles, weaving implements or buttons), parts of soldiers’ equipment, items used for leather working, amulets and other magical items, knife handles, musical instruments, playing stones (e.g., lopsided dices), frames of various kinds (e.g., of mirrors), furniture (including fittings, wood sidings and inlayed decoration), boxes, plaques, writing items (for example, κάλαμοι, calami in Lat.), liturgical and religious items (e.g., crosses and reliquaries), half-finished products and miscellania. Just as in other Roman sites in the rest of the ancient world, hairpins are the most numerous artifacts made of bone or antler in the Eastern part of the Empire. Gaming pieces represent the other widespread and customary instrumentum category of the worked bones. Several other material groups also used during the proceesing of bone artefacts, for example, some objects may have been filled with coloured wax to make them to stand out.
So far the study of this material group has been overlooked, whereas there is still a huge amount of unpublished material from excavations, field surveys and museums in the entire Mediterranean and rest of the ancient world. There is a regular conference series of the Worked Bone Research Group (WBRG; cf. <https://www.wbrg.net/>) which include almost all periods and areas. In our e-meeting in 2025 we only focus on bone objects between the fourth century B.C. and the sixth century A.D., and attempt to set out a comprehensive model for the study of bone objects, including their definition, typology, chronology, contexts, function, regional characteristics, production and distribution patterns in the whole eastern Mediterranean geographies, including the Near East, Black Sea area and Balkans. The increasing number of recent finds in our concerned areas over the last thirty years, thanks to the development of preventive archaeology, has tended to challenge our previous observations and assumptions on Graeco-Roman and Byzantine worked bone objects.
It is also our intention to create a complete bibliography of previous publications on bone objects for several areas and chronologies.
We warmly invite contributions by scholars and graduate students from a variety of disciplines related to this material group. Intended to bring together scholars of Greek, Roman and Early Byzantine instrumenta / artefacts’ archaeology to discuss a range of issues concerning this material group characteristics, this video conference should be an excellent opportunity to increase our knowledge about ancient worked bones. The following theme groups are the main questions of the conference which are prescriptive:
- Bone objects from archaeological field projects, museums and private collections,
- Graeco-Roman bone objects in comparison with the bone objects of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic periods, Bronze and Iron Ages,
- Graeco-Roman bone objects in comparison with the Minoan and Mycenaean bone objects,
- Etymology of bone objects in ancient Near Eastern, eastern Mediterranean and Aegean languages,
- Ancient Greek, Latin and Byzantine textual sources on bone objects,
- Typological evolution and design of bone objects,
- Selection criteria for some certain animal genres for bone-working,
- Decoration of bone objects, as detailed chronologies should be established for both the produced forms and their decoration,
- Chronologies of these objects that can highlight the social spread of these products,
- Manufacturing technics, manufacturing tools, major production centers and workshops of bone objects in the Hellenistic, Roman and Early Byzantine periods, their organisation and interactions.
- Distribution of bone objects, economic and social aspects: in what type of socio-economic context are they found?,
- Typological and functional features of bone objects during the Hellenistic, Roman and Early Byzantine periods: what might the utilitarian, social and/or symbolic functions or practices of these objects have been?
- Identification of the economic factors that contributed to the standardization in the bone-working,
- What ancient Greeks, Romans and Byzantines thought about afterlife? Bone objects in the eastern Mediterranean funerary contexts,
- The role of monastic or religious economy on Early Byzantine bone-working,
- Commodities and their trade through bone objects,
- Relations of bone objects to metal, terracotta, glass, wooden or stone objects: how did this material group fit in with objects made from different materials, particularly metal, glass, or wood? Can any stylistic links be found between them?
- Roman bone objects in the eastern and western Mediterranean and Europe, and their differences,
- Hellenistic and Roman gravestones and other iconographic media depicting bone objects,
- Conservation of worked bone objects, especially excavated finds: current strategies and future approaches,
- Archaeometric analyses of these objects,
- Miscellanea.
On these themes and questions, all approaches and methods susceptible to bring some progress to our current knowledge are of course welcome: archaeology, physical anthropology, archaeozoology, osteoarchaeology, bioarchaeology, palaeohistology, ancient history, history of art, cultural anthropology etc.
A special focus of the workshop is the identification of workshops from different regions, cities and areas, in particular capital cities (such as Byzantium, Ephesus, Pergamum, Antioch-on-the-Orontes, Alexandria, Athens, Rome etc.) with main workshops. A regional approach will enable us to understand the influences and contacts between workshops. Were these exclusively urban activities, or also rural? What motivated their establishment? Political powers, raw materials, the development of urban centres and the urban elite (merchants, craftsmen, religious orders, etc.) or economic outlets? And, are there any imitations or copies in certain localities suggesting competition between workshops?
Another important topic is the manufacturing techniques which were varied and depended on the composition and morphology of each raw material type as much as on the artefact to be produced. Regardless of the raw material, the manufacturing process of an ancient bone object was usually multi-stage:
1. Selection and acquisition of the raw material;
2. Preparation of the raw material, including cleaning, drying and cutting into pieces;
3. The appropriate working processes using instruments like knives, chisels, files, lathes and bow-drills;
4. Finishing the worked objects by grinding, polishing and colouring.
The previous finds reflect that mostly manufacturing techniques were related to an organized production where the different manufacturing stages were standardized and predefined which can be identified as a chaîne opératoire. Particular attention should be paid to these technical aspects, which are the integral parts of the uniqueness of most of the ancient worked bone objects.
Ancient bone objects were found in relatively large quantities in the entire Mediterranean, from Spain to Syria and Egypt to France, where they were manufactured between the Neolithic and Medieval periods. The art of carving animal bones involves especially antler and horn. However, the spectrum of the worked bone objects recovered from Anatolia, rest of the eastern Mediterranean, Near East, the Black Sea area and Balkans is very varied, and reflects different characteristics of Graeco-Roman and Byzantine daily life. In these areas they were also utilised as grave goods secondarily. They were exported or imported over the entire ancient Graeco-Roman and Byzantine worlds.
In this conference papers dealing with ancient artefacts or objects manufactured by worked bone, antler, ivory, animal teeth, mother of pearl and cockleshell will be included. Main material groups made by bones are as follows: items connected to personal grooming, weaponry, artifacts used in to spinning or in pottery decoration, artifacts related to cosmetics, jewellery, combs, pins for clothing and women’s hair, items related to dressmaking and textile (particularly sewing needles, weaving implements or buttons), parts of soldiers’ equipment, items used for leather working, amulets and other magical items, knife handles, musical instruments, playing stones (e.g., lopsided dices), frames of various kinds (e.g., of mirrors), furniture (including fittings, wood sidings and inlayed decoration), boxes, plaques, writing items (for example, κάλαμοι, calami in Lat.), liturgical and religious items (e.g., crosses and reliquaries), half-finished products and miscellania. Just as in other Roman sites in the rest of the ancient world, hairpins are the most numerous artifacts made of bone or antler in the Eastern part of the Empire. Gaming pieces represent the other widespread and customary instrumentum category of the worked bones. Several other material groups also used during the proceesing of bone artefacts, for example, some objects may have been filled with coloured wax to make them to stand out.
So far the study of this material group has been overlooked, whereas there is still a huge amount of unpublished material from excavations, field surveys and museums in the entire Mediterranean and rest of the ancient world. There is a regular conference series of the Worked Bone Research Group (WBRG; cf. <https://www.wbrg.net/>) which include almost all periods and areas. In our e-meeting in 2025 we only focus on bone objects between the fourth century B.C. and the sixth century A.D., and attempt to set out a comprehensive model for the study of bone objects, including their definition, typology, chronology, contexts, function, regional characteristics, production and distribution patterns in the whole eastern Mediterranean geographies, including the Near East, Black Sea area and Balkans. The increasing number of recent finds in our concerned areas over the last thirty years, thanks to the development of preventive archaeology, has tended to challenge our previous observations and assumptions on Graeco-Roman and Byzantine worked bone objects.
It is also our intention to create a complete bibliography of previous publications on bone objects for several areas and chronologies.
We warmly invite contributions by scholars and graduate students from a variety of disciplines related to this material group. Intended to bring together scholars of Greek, Roman and Early Byzantine instrumenta / artefacts’ archaeology to discuss a range of issues concerning this material group characteristics, this video conference should be an excellent opportunity to increase our knowledge about ancient worked bones. The following theme groups are the main questions of the conference which are prescriptive:
- Bone objects from archaeological field projects, museums and private collections,
- Graeco-Roman bone objects in comparison with the bone objects of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic periods, Bronze and Iron Ages,
- Graeco-Roman bone objects in comparison with the Minoan and Mycenaean bone objects,
- Etymology of bone objects in ancient Near Eastern, eastern Mediterranean and Aegean languages,
- Ancient Greek, Latin and Byzantine textual sources on bone objects,
- Typological evolution and design of bone objects,
- Selection criteria for some certain animal genres for bone-working,
- Decoration of bone objects, as detailed chronologies should be established for both the produced forms and their decoration,
- Chronologies of these objects that can highlight the social spread of these products,
- Manufacturing technics, manufacturing tools, major production centers and workshops of bone objects in the Hellenistic, Roman and Early Byzantine periods, their organisation and interactions.
- Distribution of bone objects, economic and social aspects: in what type of socio-economic context are they found?,
- Typological and functional features of bone objects during the Hellenistic, Roman and Early Byzantine periods: what might the utilitarian, social and/or symbolic functions or practices of these objects have been?
- Identification of the economic factors that contributed to the standardization in the bone-working,
- What ancient Greeks, Romans and Byzantines thought about afterlife? Bone objects in the eastern Mediterranean funerary contexts,
- The role of monastic or religious economy on Early Byzantine bone-working,
- Commodities and their trade through bone objects,
- Relations of bone objects to metal, terracotta, glass, wooden or stone objects: how did this material group fit in with objects made from different materials, particularly metal, glass, or wood? Can any stylistic links be found between them?
- Roman bone objects in the eastern and western Mediterranean and Europe, and their differences,
- Hellenistic and Roman gravestones and other iconographic media depicting bone objects,
- Conservation of worked bone objects, especially excavated finds: current strategies and future approaches,
- Archaeometric analyses of these objects,
- Miscellanea.
On these themes and questions, all approaches and methods susceptible to bring some progress to our current knowledge are of course welcome: archaeology, physical anthropology, archaeozoology, osteoarchaeology, bioarchaeology, palaeohistology, ancient history, history of art, cultural anthropology etc.
A special focus of the workshop is the identification of workshops from different regions, cities and areas, in particular capital cities (such as Byzantium, Ephesus, Pergamum, Antioch-on-the-Orontes, Alexandria, Athens, Rome etc.) with main workshops. A regional approach will enable us to understand the influences and contacts between workshops. Were these exclusively urban activities, or also rural? What motivated their establishment? Political powers, raw materials, the development of urban centres and the urban elite (merchants, craftsmen, religious orders, etc.) or economic outlets? And, are there any imitations or copies in certain localities suggesting competition between workshops?
Another important topic is the manufacturing techniques which were varied and depended on the composition and morphology of each raw material type as much as on the artefact to be produced. Regardless of the raw material, the manufacturing process of an ancient bone object was usually multi-stage:
1. Selection and acquisition of the raw material;
2. Preparation of the raw material, including cleaning, drying and cutting into pieces;
3. The appropriate working processes using instruments like knives, chisels, files, lathes and bow-drills;
4. Finishing the worked objects by grinding, polishing and colouring.
The previous finds reflect that mostly manufacturing techniques were related to an organized production where the different manufacturing stages were standardized and predefined which can be identified as a chaîne opératoire. Particular attention should be paid to these technical aspects, which are the integral parts of the uniqueness of most of the ancient worked bone objects.
We also need to look at the distribution of these objects on a local, regional, and even supra-regional scale, and trade networks. Some have crossed the overseas, such as Anatolian products unearthed in England. How can these exchanges be explained?
Our conference is primarily virtual, and will take place on Zoom; but if any of participant will wish to appear in Izmir physically, she/he is welcome to present her/his paper in our conference room to the audience which will also be livestreamed and broadcasted simultaneously on Zoom. The conference is free.