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Monty Lynn

Abilene Christian University, Management Sciences, Faculty Member

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Monty teaches business management and international development and is interested in the health and functioning of people and societies. His research touches on multiple business disciplines and often engages religion, spirituality, and global economic development.

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University of Delaware

J. P. Manoussakis

College of the Holy Cross

R. Michael Feener

Kyoto University

Oliver P Richmond

The University of Manchester

Kansas State University

Brandon Gallaher

University of Exeter

University of Cologne

Armando Marques-Guedes

UNL - New University of Lisbon

University of the Basque Country, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea

Luke Bretherton

University of Oxford

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Books by Monty Lynn

Venture Out! An Entrepreneurial Introduction to Business

Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion

Papers by Monty Lynn

A Response to “Discipleship as Process: The Manager’s Role in Connecting People to Faith”

The Journal of Biblical Integration in Business, Nov 2, 2019

McMahone renews attention to workplace disciple-making. His broad understanding of discipleship a... more McMahone renews attention to workplace disciple-making. His broad understanding of discipleship and his historical and contemporary applications serve as kindling for additional inquiries into the nature of discipleship and disciple-making, with multiple avenues appearing for exploring the contours of witness and possibly broadening evangelism to include restoration and transformation. 2

Faith at Work Scale

Springer eBooks, Nov 7, 2012

Workplace spirituality research has sidestepped religion by focusing on the function of belief ra... more Workplace spirituality research has sidestepped religion by focusing on the function of belief rather than its substance. Although establishing a unified foundation for research, the functional approach cannot shed light on issues of workplace pluralism, individual or institutional faith-work integration, or the institutional roles of religion in economic activity. To remedy this, we revisit definitions of spirituality and argue for the place of a belief-based approach to workplace religion. Additionally, we describe the construction of a 15-item measure of workplace religion informed by Judaism and Christianity-the Faith at Work Scale (FWS). A stratified random sample (n = 234) of managers and professionals assisted in refining the FWS which exhibits a single factor structure (Eigenvalue = 8.88; variance accounted for = 59.22%) that is internally consistent (Cronbach's a = 0.77) and demonstrates convergent validity with the Faith Maturity Scale (r = 0.81, p > 0.0001). The scale shows lower skew and kurtosis with Mainline and Catholic adherents than with Mormons and Evangelicals. Validation of the scale among Jewish and diverse Christian adherants would extend research in workplace religion.

Faith at Work Scale (FWS): Justification, Development, and Validation of a Measure of Judaeo-Christian Religion in the Workplace

Journal of Business Ethics, May 24, 2008

Workplace spirituality research has sidestepped religion by focusing on the function of belief ra... more Workplace spirituality research has sidestepped religion by focusing on the function of belief rather than its substance. Although establishing a unified foundation for research, the functional approach cannot shed light on issues of workplace pluralism, individual or institutional faith-work integration, or the institutional roles of religion in economic activity. To remedy this, we revisit definitions of spirituality and argue for the place of a belief-based approach to workplace religion. Additionally, we describe the construction of a 15-item measure of workplace religion informed by Judaism and Christianity-the Faith at Work Scale (FWS). A stratified random sample (n = 234) of managers and professionals assisted in refining the FWS which exhibits a single factor structure (Eigenvalue = 8.88; variance accounted for = 59.22%) that is internally consistent (Cronbach's a = 0.77) and demonstrates convergent validity with the Faith Maturity Scale (r = 0.81, p > 0.0001). The scale shows lower skew and kurtosis with Mainline and Catholic adherents than with Mormons and Evangelicals. Validation of the scale among Jewish and diverse Christian adherants would extend research in workplace religion.

Contending with Sisyphus: Pursuing Sustainable Development in a Business-as-Usual World

Proceedings - Academy of Management, Aug 1, 2020

Organizational Buffering: Managing Boundaries and Cores

Organization Studies, 2005

Organizations generally are more innovative, relevant, and responsive when they are exposed to ma... more Organizations generally are more innovative, relevant, and responsive when they are exposed to market influences, yet they must regulate or limit the impact of outside influences to operate efficiently. This dynamic organization-environment tension has inspired the creation of several models of organizational buffering which delineate the systematic exposure and insulation of organizations from environmental uncertainty. We review three buffering paradigms-core, minimalist, and dispersed-and attempt to synthesize a model which weaves these perspectives together. The key to understanding functional and dysfunctional buffering lies with the organization's requisite variety and continuous or discontinuous environmental change.

Work for the Night is Coming": How Christian Hymns Frame Human Labor

Journal of management, spirituality & religion, Oct 1, 2022

We examine how popular religion portrays human labor by analyzing work themes in Christian hymns ... more We examine how popular religion portrays human labor by analyzing work themes in Christian hymns published over five centuries, from 1500 to 2000. Utilizing an emergent qualitative approach, we identify eight themes: Reward follows Work; Work with Dedication; God Provides; Work is Difficult; Work is Holy; Work is Duty; Work in Solidarity; and Witness at Work. A quantitative examination indicates that the themes of Reward follows Work, Work with Dedication, and God Provides occur most frequently. Reward follows Work and Work with Dedication decline in the second half of the twentieth century while Work in Solidarity rises, suggesting increased attention to global labor justice. Historically, hymns broadcast the Protestant Work Ethic. Today, they herald several underexplored dimensions of workplace religion.

Development of a Prediction Model for Hospital Closure Using Financial Accounting Data

Decision Sciences, May 1, 1993

Numerous research studies have examined the use of financial accounting data in the prediction of... more Numerous research studies have examined the use of financial accounting data in the prediction of corporate bankruptcy. Partly due to a lack of available data, however, little work has been done in developing a closure prediction model specifically for hospitals. Using cost reports from the Health Care Financing Administration and a sample of 7 1 closed hospitals and a matched sample of 71 open hospitals, the current study examines the relationship between 21 financial accounting ratios and hospital closure. Univariate logit results indicate that hospital closure is significantly related to 17 of the 21 ratios one year prior to closure. Results are also presented using a multivariate model, and for the relationships two years prior to closure. The current study provides information helpful to users in identifying financial variables which may be important indicators of hospital closure.

Mission statements in Slovene enterprises

Management Decision, May 8, 2007

Purpose-The paper sets out to observe the absorption of strategic management practice in a leadin... more Purpose-The paper sets out to observe the absorption of strategic management practice in a leading Central and East European (CEE) economy, and to provide insight into institutional differences influencing the content of mission statements. Design/methodology/approach-The content of mission statements from large Slovene enterprises is compared with research on US mission statements. Findings-Mission statements in Slovene firms tend to emphasize customers, shareholders, and strategic suppliers significantly less often than do US firms. Corporate reputation, customer-market scope and quality are also mentioned significantly less often in Slovene statements. Although some gaps between the theoretical ideal and corporate practice may exist in both settings, many differences may be explained by macroeconomic volatility, industry structure, and institutional environments. Research limitations/implications-Although the Slovene sample size is smaller than comparable US studies, it is an equivalent sample of the two nations' largest firms. The time difference between the Slovene and US samples is not a critical issue in this study since it mimics the time delay between the behaviour of the US firms and the subsequent behaviour of Slovene firms in writing mission statements. Practical implications-The conclusions can help managers in US multinational firms to better understand some implicit differences in understanding organisations and their relationships with the business and social environment when they do business with firms from CEE. Originality/value-The paper presents what are differences between Slovene and American companies regarding mission statements content and stakeholders involved and it gives some possible explanations for them based on cultural and historical differences.

Connecting religion and work: Patterns and influences of work-faith integration

Human Relations, Dec 17, 2010

Religiosity can significantly impact human behavior yet little is known about how religious belie... more Religiosity can significantly impact human behavior yet little is known about how religious belief and practice integrate with work. Using the Faith at Work Scale, we surveyed Christian workers in the United States (n = 374) and found that work-faith integration was positively associated with faith maturity, church attendance, age and denominational strictness, and negatively associated with organizational size. Denominational groups varied in their degree of integration but displayed similar patterns across dimensions of integration. Work-faith integration was manifest most strongly in integration related to the self, and somewhat less so in areas related to others and in transcendent aspects of work. Respondents attributed spiritual disciplines and workplace mentors as salient influences of work-faith integration. Implications for workplace spirituality scholarship and management are explored.

Venture Out: An Entrepreneurial Introduction to Business

Christian Business Academy Review, 2010

The World's Largest Experiment in Work Teams

Under Josip Tito's leadersh ip (1945-1980), Yugoslavia broke away from Stalin in 1948 and dev... more Under Josip Tito's leadersh ip (1945-1980), Yugoslavia broke away from Stalin in 1948 and developed the world's largest experiment in work teams, cal1ed self management. lts focus was not on incremental innovation a la Japanese total quality management, nor on production as in North American quality of work life initiatives, but on leadership issues. Workers were supposed to replace owners and state bureaucracy in running firms. The experiment failed, in large part because the state bureaucracy did not trust workers' capabilities and did not want to give up their own authority . The result was that two critical elements of self-management-responsibility and vision--were undermined rather than developed. A state-supported neo-Taylor ism with a "thinking tank " and aseparate "working tank" evolved which represented little responsibility behind a facade of self-management. By the 1980s, worker councils had become a formality rather than real, professionalleadership within Yugoslav firms .

Moving Beyond Sisyphus: Pursuing Sustainable Development in a Business-as-Usual World

Business & Society, May 22, 2021

How do actors cope when their repeated efforts to bring change seem futile? In this qualitative s... more How do actors cope when their repeated efforts to bring change seem futile? In this qualitative study, we consider sustainable development initiatives within a U.S. higher education institution where repeated efforts by actors led to nominal change. We focus on understanding how actors sought to enact sustainable development initiatives in the face of an unresponsive context, that is, in a context characterized by pressures to maintain the status quo. We show how actors’ attempts to embed sustainable development practices into the university represent a dynamic process, characterized by periods of persistence and suspension. Our theorizing reveals that actors used three coping mechanisms to maintain focus on their sustainability goals: community building, resourcefulness, and vision. By emphasizing these dimensions of their initiatives, actors’ emotional response is focused on encouragement and hope to persist in a context that is largely unresponsive to sustainable development. Our study contributes to the sustainability literature by explicating how actors develop resilience in their efforts to pursue sustainable development in unresponsive contexts.

Yugoslav Self-Management

Social indicators research series, 2000

Under Josip Tito’s leadership (1945-1980), Yugoslavia broke away from Stalin in 1948 and develope... more Under Josip Tito’s leadership (1945-1980), Yugoslavia broke away from Stalin in 1948 and developed the world’s largest experiment in work teams, called self-management. Its focus was not on incremental innovation a la Japanese total quality management, nor on production as in North American quality of work life initiatives, but on leadership issues. Workers were supposed to replace owners and state bureaucracy in running firms. The experiment failed, in large part because the state bureaucracy did not trust workers’ capabilities and did not want to give up their own authority. The result was that two critical elements of self-management—responsibility and vision—were undermined rather than developed. A state-supported neo-Taylorism with a “thinking tank” and a separate “working tank” evolved which represented little responsibility behind a facade of self-management. By the 1980s, worker councils had become a formality rather than real, professional leadership within Yugoslav firms.

Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion,: A Research Annual

Value Chain Development with the Extremely Poor: Evidence and Lessons from CARE, Save the Children, and World Vision

Social Science Research Network, 2017

CARE, Save the Children, and World Vision are combining value chain development (VCD) with gender... more CARE, Save the Children, and World Vision are combining value chain development (VCD) with gender and nutrition programming to alleviate poverty and food insecurity among the extremely poor. We explore what is unique about VCD with the extremely poor and how specific levers enhance productivity and profitability, equity, and empowerment. We offer evidence to date and lessons learned.

“Gain all You Can, Save all You Can, Give all You Can”: An Exercise in Giving

Christian Business Academy Review, 2017

Theologically-informed approaches to giving are critical to faith-based business curricula, yet f... more Theologically-informed approaches to giving are critical to faith-based business curricula, yet few resources are available for use in personal financial planning or other courses to expose students to the practice of giving. Based on a recently developed model of giving (Brister, Litton, Lynn, and Tippens, 2016), we offer background content for discussion and an exercise to catalyze thinking and practice about lifetime giving from a Christian perspective.

Venture Out! An Entrepreneurial Introduction to Business

Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion

A Response to “Discipleship as Process: The Manager’s Role in Connecting People to Faith”

The Journal of Biblical Integration in Business, Nov 2, 2019

McMahone renews attention to workplace disciple-making. His broad understanding of discipleship a... more McMahone renews attention to workplace disciple-making. His broad understanding of discipleship and his historical and contemporary applications serve as kindling for additional inquiries into the nature of discipleship and disciple-making, with multiple avenues appearing for exploring the contours of witness and possibly broadening evangelism to include restoration and transformation. 2

Faith at Work Scale

Springer eBooks, Nov 7, 2012

Workplace spirituality research has sidestepped religion by focusing on the function of belief ra... more Workplace spirituality research has sidestepped religion by focusing on the function of belief rather than its substance. Although establishing a unified foundation for research, the functional approach cannot shed light on issues of workplace pluralism, individual or institutional faith-work integration, or the institutional roles of religion in economic activity. To remedy this, we revisit definitions of spirituality and argue for the place of a belief-based approach to workplace religion. Additionally, we describe the construction of a 15-item measure of workplace religion informed by Judaism and Christianity-the Faith at Work Scale (FWS). A stratified random sample (n = 234) of managers and professionals assisted in refining the FWS which exhibits a single factor structure (Eigenvalue = 8.88; variance accounted for = 59.22%) that is internally consistent (Cronbach's a = 0.77) and demonstrates convergent validity with the Faith Maturity Scale (r = 0.81, p > 0.0001). The scale shows lower skew and kurtosis with Mainline and Catholic adherents than with Mormons and Evangelicals. Validation of the scale among Jewish and diverse Christian adherants would extend research in workplace religion.

Faith at Work Scale (FWS): Justification, Development, and Validation of a Measure of Judaeo-Christian Religion in the Workplace

Journal of Business Ethics, May 24, 2008

Workplace spirituality research has sidestepped religion by focusing on the function of belief ra... more Workplace spirituality research has sidestepped religion by focusing on the function of belief rather than its substance. Although establishing a unified foundation for research, the functional approach cannot shed light on issues of workplace pluralism, individual or institutional faith-work integration, or the institutional roles of religion in economic activity. To remedy this, we revisit definitions of spirituality and argue for the place of a belief-based approach to workplace religion. Additionally, we describe the construction of a 15-item measure of workplace religion informed by Judaism and Christianity-the Faith at Work Scale (FWS). A stratified random sample (n = 234) of managers and professionals assisted in refining the FWS which exhibits a single factor structure (Eigenvalue = 8.88; variance accounted for = 59.22%) that is internally consistent (Cronbach's a = 0.77) and demonstrates convergent validity with the Faith Maturity Scale (r = 0.81, p > 0.0001). The scale shows lower skew and kurtosis with Mainline and Catholic adherents than with Mormons and Evangelicals. Validation of the scale among Jewish and diverse Christian adherants would extend research in workplace religion.

Contending with Sisyphus: Pursuing Sustainable Development in a Business-as-Usual World

Proceedings - Academy of Management, Aug 1, 2020

Organizational Buffering: Managing Boundaries and Cores

Organization Studies, 2005

Organizations generally are more innovative, relevant, and responsive when they are exposed to ma... more Organizations generally are more innovative, relevant, and responsive when they are exposed to market influences, yet they must regulate or limit the impact of outside influences to operate efficiently. This dynamic organization-environment tension has inspired the creation of several models of organizational buffering which delineate the systematic exposure and insulation of organizations from environmental uncertainty. We review three buffering paradigms-core, minimalist, and dispersed-and attempt to synthesize a model which weaves these perspectives together. The key to understanding functional and dysfunctional buffering lies with the organization's requisite variety and continuous or discontinuous environmental change.

Work for the Night is Coming": How Christian Hymns Frame Human Labor

Journal of management, spirituality & religion, Oct 1, 2022

We examine how popular religion portrays human labor by analyzing work themes in Christian hymns ... more We examine how popular religion portrays human labor by analyzing work themes in Christian hymns published over five centuries, from 1500 to 2000. Utilizing an emergent qualitative approach, we identify eight themes: Reward follows Work; Work with Dedication; God Provides; Work is Difficult; Work is Holy; Work is Duty; Work in Solidarity; and Witness at Work. A quantitative examination indicates that the themes of Reward follows Work, Work with Dedication, and God Provides occur most frequently. Reward follows Work and Work with Dedication decline in the second half of the twentieth century while Work in Solidarity rises, suggesting increased attention to global labor justice. Historically, hymns broadcast the Protestant Work Ethic. Today, they herald several underexplored dimensions of workplace religion.

Development of a Prediction Model for Hospital Closure Using Financial Accounting Data

Decision Sciences, May 1, 1993

Numerous research studies have examined the use of financial accounting data in the prediction of... more Numerous research studies have examined the use of financial accounting data in the prediction of corporate bankruptcy. Partly due to a lack of available data, however, little work has been done in developing a closure prediction model specifically for hospitals. Using cost reports from the Health Care Financing Administration and a sample of 7 1 closed hospitals and a matched sample of 71 open hospitals, the current study examines the relationship between 21 financial accounting ratios and hospital closure. Univariate logit results indicate that hospital closure is significantly related to 17 of the 21 ratios one year prior to closure. Results are also presented using a multivariate model, and for the relationships two years prior to closure. The current study provides information helpful to users in identifying financial variables which may be important indicators of hospital closure.

Mission statements in Slovene enterprises

Management Decision, May 8, 2007

Purpose-The paper sets out to observe the absorption of strategic management practice in a leadin... more Purpose-The paper sets out to observe the absorption of strategic management practice in a leading Central and East European (CEE) economy, and to provide insight into institutional differences influencing the content of mission statements. Design/methodology/approach-The content of mission statements from large Slovene enterprises is compared with research on US mission statements. Findings-Mission statements in Slovene firms tend to emphasize customers, shareholders, and strategic suppliers significantly less often than do US firms. Corporate reputation, customer-market scope and quality are also mentioned significantly less often in Slovene statements. Although some gaps between the theoretical ideal and corporate practice may exist in both settings, many differences may be explained by macroeconomic volatility, industry structure, and institutional environments. Research limitations/implications-Although the Slovene sample size is smaller than comparable US studies, it is an equivalent sample of the two nations' largest firms. The time difference between the Slovene and US samples is not a critical issue in this study since it mimics the time delay between the behaviour of the US firms and the subsequent behaviour of Slovene firms in writing mission statements. Practical implications-The conclusions can help managers in US multinational firms to better understand some implicit differences in understanding organisations and their relationships with the business and social environment when they do business with firms from CEE. Originality/value-The paper presents what are differences between Slovene and American companies regarding mission statements content and stakeholders involved and it gives some possible explanations for them based on cultural and historical differences.

Connecting religion and work: Patterns and influences of work-faith integration

Human Relations, Dec 17, 2010

Religiosity can significantly impact human behavior yet little is known about how religious belie... more Religiosity can significantly impact human behavior yet little is known about how religious belief and practice integrate with work. Using the Faith at Work Scale, we surveyed Christian workers in the United States (n = 374) and found that work-faith integration was positively associated with faith maturity, church attendance, age and denominational strictness, and negatively associated with organizational size. Denominational groups varied in their degree of integration but displayed similar patterns across dimensions of integration. Work-faith integration was manifest most strongly in integration related to the self, and somewhat less so in areas related to others and in transcendent aspects of work. Respondents attributed spiritual disciplines and workplace mentors as salient influences of work-faith integration. Implications for workplace spirituality scholarship and management are explored.

Venture Out: An Entrepreneurial Introduction to Business

Christian Business Academy Review, 2010

The World's Largest Experiment in Work Teams

Under Josip Tito's leadersh ip (1945-1980), Yugoslavia broke away from Stalin in 1948 and dev... more Under Josip Tito's leadersh ip (1945-1980), Yugoslavia broke away from Stalin in 1948 and developed the world's largest experiment in work teams, cal1ed self management. lts focus was not on incremental innovation a la Japanese total quality management, nor on production as in North American quality of work life initiatives, but on leadership issues. Workers were supposed to replace owners and state bureaucracy in running firms. The experiment failed, in large part because the state bureaucracy did not trust workers' capabilities and did not want to give up their own authority . The result was that two critical elements of self-management-responsibility and vision--were undermined rather than developed. A state-supported neo-Taylor ism with a "thinking tank " and aseparate "working tank" evolved which represented little responsibility behind a facade of self-management. By the 1980s, worker councils had become a formality rather than real, professionalleadership within Yugoslav firms .

Moving Beyond Sisyphus: Pursuing Sustainable Development in a Business-as-Usual World

Business & Society, May 22, 2021

How do actors cope when their repeated efforts to bring change seem futile? In this qualitative s... more How do actors cope when their repeated efforts to bring change seem futile? In this qualitative study, we consider sustainable development initiatives within a U.S. higher education institution where repeated efforts by actors led to nominal change. We focus on understanding how actors sought to enact sustainable development initiatives in the face of an unresponsive context, that is, in a context characterized by pressures to maintain the status quo. We show how actors’ attempts to embed sustainable development practices into the university represent a dynamic process, characterized by periods of persistence and suspension. Our theorizing reveals that actors used three coping mechanisms to maintain focus on their sustainability goals: community building, resourcefulness, and vision. By emphasizing these dimensions of their initiatives, actors’ emotional response is focused on encouragement and hope to persist in a context that is largely unresponsive to sustainable development. Our study contributes to the sustainability literature by explicating how actors develop resilience in their efforts to pursue sustainable development in unresponsive contexts.

Yugoslav Self-Management

Social indicators research series, 2000

Under Josip Tito’s leadership (1945-1980), Yugoslavia broke away from Stalin in 1948 and develope... more Under Josip Tito’s leadership (1945-1980), Yugoslavia broke away from Stalin in 1948 and developed the world’s largest experiment in work teams, called self-management. Its focus was not on incremental innovation a la Japanese total quality management, nor on production as in North American quality of work life initiatives, but on leadership issues. Workers were supposed to replace owners and state bureaucracy in running firms. The experiment failed, in large part because the state bureaucracy did not trust workers’ capabilities and did not want to give up their own authority. The result was that two critical elements of self-management—responsibility and vision—were undermined rather than developed. A state-supported neo-Taylorism with a “thinking tank” and a separate “working tank” evolved which represented little responsibility behind a facade of self-management. By the 1980s, worker councils had become a formality rather than real, professional leadership within Yugoslav firms.

Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion,: A Research Annual

Value Chain Development with the Extremely Poor: Evidence and Lessons from CARE, Save the Children, and World Vision

Social Science Research Network, 2017

CARE, Save the Children, and World Vision are combining value chain development (VCD) with gender... more CARE, Save the Children, and World Vision are combining value chain development (VCD) with gender and nutrition programming to alleviate poverty and food insecurity among the extremely poor. We explore what is unique about VCD with the extremely poor and how specific levers enhance productivity and profitability, equity, and empowerment. We offer evidence to date and lessons learned.

“Gain all You Can, Save all You Can, Give all You Can”: An Exercise in Giving

Christian Business Academy Review, 2017

Theologically-informed approaches to giving are critical to faith-based business curricula, yet f... more Theologically-informed approaches to giving are critical to faith-based business curricula, yet few resources are available for use in personal financial planning or other courses to expose students to the practice of giving. Based on a recently developed model of giving (Brister, Litton, Lynn, and Tippens, 2016), we offer background content for discussion and an exercise to catalyze thinking and practice about lifetime giving from a Christian perspective.

Bringing Religion to Work: Patterns and Influences of Work-Faith Integration

Social Science Research Network, 2011

Religiosity can significantly impact human behavior yet little is known about how religious belie... more Religiosity can significantly impact human behavior yet little is known about how religious belief and practice integrate with work. Using the Faith at Work Scale, we surveyed Christian workers in the United States (n = 374) and found that work-faith integration was positively associated with faith maturity, church attendance, age and denominational strictness, and negatively associated with organizational size. Denominational groups varied in their degree of integration but displayed similar patterns across dimensions of integration. Work-faith integration was manifest most strongly in integration related to the self, and somewhat less so in areas related to others and in transcendent aspects of work. Respondents attributed spiritual disciplines and workplace mentors as salient influences of work-faith integration. Implications for workplace spirituality scholarship and management are explored.

More Blessed to Give than to Receive: A Model of Lifetime Charitable Giving

Social Science Research Network, Mar 6, 2016

We integrate theological, financial and social science scholarship to create a model which descri... more We integrate theological, financial and social science scholarship to create a model which describes lifetime charitable giving, or the voluntary sharing of financial and other resources over the lifecycle. As background for the model, we review Christian thought on tithing and the spirituality of giving as well as four giving theologies-prosperity, stewardship, mutuality, and simplicity. We offer recommendations on how lifetime giving might be enhanced and how the model might be applied in teaching and research.